Implication de la chaperone calnexine dans le processus de sécrétion et la survie de la levure Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Étude du rôle de la calnexine de Schizosaccharomyces pombe dans le repliement et la sécrétion de protéines

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Caractérisation de la voie permettant la viabilité de Schizosaccharomyces pombe en l'absence de calnexine

Mémoire numérisé par la Direction des bibliothèques de l'Université de Montréal.

Élucidation du rôle et du mécanisme d’action de la protéine Cuf2 lors de la méiose chez la levure Schizosaccharomyces pombe

Chez Schizosaccharomyces pombe, le cycle méiotique est le mode de division cellulaire spécialisé qui permet la formation d’ascospores résistantes à différents stress lorsque les conditions environnementales ne sont pas propices à la multiplication cellulaire. Lors de mes travaux de thèse, mes objectifs consistaient à caractériser le rôle et le mécanisme d’action de la protéine Cuf2 lors du cycle méiotique chez S. pombe. Mes résultats ont montré que le gène cuf2[indice supérieur +] était exprimé exclusivement lors des divisions méiotiques et que la protéine se co-localisait de manière constitutive avec le matériel génétique. De plus, mes résultats ont dévoilé que Cuf2 participait à l’activation et à la répression de plusieurs gènes méiotiques selon un mécanisme de nature transcriptionnelle en s’associant spécifiquement avec leur région promotrice. Par la suite, mes résultats ont mis en évidence que Cuf2 interagissait physiquement avec Mei4, un facteur de transcription méiose-spécifique, au noyau des cellules méiotiques. Notamment, mes résultats ont montré que la présence de Mei4 et de son motif de liaison à l’ADN dénommé FLEX étaient nécessaires afin que Cuf2 puisse s’associer au promoteur de son gène cible fzr1[indice supérieur +] afin d’en activer l’expression. L’ensemble de mes résultats indiquent que Cuf2 et Mei4 interagissent aux promoteurs de certains gènes lors des divisions méiotiques afin d’en co-activer l’expression. D’ailleurs, mes résultats ont également montré que la fonction de Cuf2 était importante à la formation d’ascospores et à leur viabilité ; en absence de Cuf2, la majorité des ascospores présentent diverses aberrations et plus de la moitié d’entre elles sont non-viables. Globalement, mes résultats démontrent que Cuf2 est un régulateur critique de l’expression génique lors du cycle méiotique et que cette fonction est essentielle à la sporulation chez S. pombe.

Régulation du transcriptome codant et non-codant chez Schizosaccharomyces pombe: facteurs et mécanismes impliqués dans la maturation 3’ des ARNs et la terminaison de la transcription

La synthèse d’un ARNm eucaryotique dépend d’une suite d’étapes qui inclut notamment l’ajout d’une queue poly(A) à son extrémité 3’. Au noyau, la queue poly(A) des ARNms est liée par PABPN1 (poly(A)-binding protein nuclear 1). PABPN1 fut notamment caractérisée, d’après des études in vitro, pour stimuler la réaction de polyadénylation en plus de contrôler la taille ultime des queues poly(A). Cela dit, la ou les fonction(s) biologique(s) de PABPN1 est/sont cependant largement méconnue(s). Chez Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), Pab2 est l’orthologue présumé de PABPN1. Or, mes travaux indiquent que Pab2 est fonctionnellement différente de PABPN1 à l’égard de son rôle sur le processus général de polyadénylation. Ainsi, in vivo, l’absence de Pab2 entraîne l’expression et l’accumulation d’un groupe limité d’ARNs hyperadénylés parmi lesquels se trouvent de nombreux petits ARNs nucléolaires non-codants (snoRNAs) lesquels constituent normalement un groupe abondant d’ARN poly(A)-. Mes résultats supportent ainsi un mécanisme par lequel des snoRNAs immatures poly(A)+, sont convertis en une forme mature poly(A)- par le biais de Pab2 et de l’activité 3’-->5’ exoribonucléase de l’exosome à ARN. Ces observations sont inusitées dans la mesure où elles associent une fonction pour une PABP dans la maturation d'ARNs non-codants, contrairement à la notion que les PABPs travaillent exclusivement au niveau des ARNms, en plus de procurer une nouvelle perspective face au mécanisme de recrutement de l'exosome à ARN à des substrats poly(A)+. La formation de l’extrémité 3’ d’un ARN est un processus étroitement lié à la terminaison de sa transcription. Pour les gènes codants, la terminaison transcriptionnelle est initiée par le clivage endonucléolytique du pré-ARNm. Ce clivage génère une extrémité d’ARN 5’ libre laquelle sera ciblée par une exoribonucléase 5'-->3’ afin de mener à bien l’éviction de l’ARNPII de la matrice d’ADN (terminaison transcriptionnelle de type torpedo). Au contraire, chez Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), la majorité des gènes non-codants, incluant les snoRNAs, dépendent plutôt du complexe NNS (Nrd1/Nab3/Sen1) pour la terminaison de leur transcription. Cela dit, il est incertain si le complexe NNS est conservé chez d’autres espèces. À cet égard, mes travaux indiquent que S. pombe est dépourvu d’un mécanisme de terminaison de la transcription de type NNS. Seb1, l’orthologue présumé de Nrd1 chez S. pombe, s’associe plutôt à la machinerie de clivage et de polyadénylation et influence la sélection de site de polyadénylation à l’échelle du génome. Mes résultats supportent ainsi l’utilisation de la machinerie de maturation 3’ des ARNms comme principal vecteur de terminaison transcriptionnelle chez S. pombe et identifient Seb1 comme un facteur clé de ce processus. L’évènement transcriptionnel étant hautement complexe, des erreurs peuvent arriver de manière stochastique menant à l’accumulation d’ARNs aberrants potentiellement néfastes pour la cellule. Or, mes travaux ont mis en lumière un mécanisme de surveillance co-transcriptionnel des ARNs impliquant l’exosome à ARN et lié à la terminaison de la transcription. Pour ce faire, l’exosome à ARN promeut la terminaison transcriptionnelle via la dégradation d’une extrémité 3’ libre d’ARN devenue émergente suite au recul de l’ARNPII le long de la matrice d’ADN (phénomène de backtracking). Mes résultats supportent ainsi une terminaison de la transcription de type torpedo inversé (3'-->5’) réévaluant par la même occasion le concept voulant que la terminaison de la transcription s’effectue uniquement selon une orientation 5’-->3’. Somme toute, mes travaux de doctorat auront permis d’identifier et de caractériser plus en détail les facteurs et mécanismes impliqués dans la maturation 3’ et la terminaison de la transcription des gènes codants et non-codants chez l’organisme modèle S. pombe.

Chromosomal structure: a selectable trait for evolution

Dissertation presented to obtain the Ph.D degree in Evolutionary Biology

A 2D/3D image analysis system to track fluorescently labeled structures in rod-shaped cells: application to measure spindle pole asymmetry during mitosis.

BACKGROUND: The yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe is frequently used as a model for studying the cell cycle. The cells are rod-shaped and divide by medial fission. The process of cell division, or cytokinesis, is controlled by a network of signaling proteins called the Septation Initiation Network (SIN); SIN proteins associate with the SPBs during nuclear division (mitosis). Some SIN proteins associate with both SPBs early in mitosis, and then display strongly asymmetric signal intensity at the SPBs in late mitosis, just before cytokinesis. This asymmetry is thought to be important for correct regulation of SIN signaling, and coordination of cytokinesis and mitosis. In order to study the dynamics of organelles or large protein complexes such as the spindle pole body (SPB), which have been labeled with a fluorescent protein tag in living cells, a number of the image analysis problems must be solved; the cell outline must be detected automatically, and the position and signal intensity associated with the structures of interest within the cell must be determined. RESULTS: We present a new 2D and 3D image analysis system that permits versatile and robust analysis of motile, fluorescently labeled structures in rod-shaped cells. We have designed an image analysis system that we have implemented as a user-friendly software package allowing the fast and robust image-analysis of large numbers of rod-shaped cells. We have developed new robust algorithms, which we combined with existing methodologies to facilitate fast and accurate analysis. Our software permits the detection and segmentation of rod-shaped cells in either static or dynamic (i.e. time lapse) multi-channel images. It enables tracking of two structures (for example SPBs) in two different image channels. For 2D or 3D static images, the locations of the structures are identified, and then intensity values are extracted together with several quantitative parameters, such as length, width, cell orientation, background fluorescence and the distance between the structures of interest. Furthermore, two kinds of kymographs of the tracked structures can be established, one representing the migration with respect to their relative position, the other representing their individual trajectories inside the cell. This software package, called "RodCellJ", allowed us to analyze a large number of S. pombe cells to understand the rules that govern SIN protein asymmetry. CONCLUSIONS: "RodCell" is freely available to the community as a package of several ImageJ plugins to simultaneously analyze the behavior of a large number of rod-shaped cells in an extensive manner. The integration of different image-processing techniques in a single package, as well as the development of novel algorithms does not only allow to speed up the analysis with respect to the usage of existing tools, but also accounts for higher accuracy. Its utility was demonstrated on both 2D and 3D static and dynamic images to study the septation initiation network of the yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. More generally, it can be used in any kind of biological context where fluorescent-protein labeled structures need to be analyzed in rod-shaped cells. AVAILABILITY: RodCellJ is freely available under http://bigwww.epfl.ch/algorithms.html, (after acceptance of the publication).

Comparative Genomics Suggests that the Fungal Pathogen Pneumocystis Is an Obligate Parasite Scavenging Amino Acids from Its Host's Lungs.

Pneumocystis jirovecii is a fungus causing severe pneumonia in immuno-compromised patients. Progress in understanding its pathogenicity and epidemiology has been hampered by the lack of a long-term in vitro culture method. Obligate parasitism of this pathogen has been suggested on the basis of various features but remains controversial. We analysed the 7.0 Mb draft genome sequence of the closely related species Pneumocystis carinii infecting rats, which is a well established experimental model of the disease. We predicted 8'085 (redundant) peptides and 14.9% of them were mapped onto the KEGG biochemical pathways. The proteome of the closely related yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe was used as a control for the annotation procedure (4'974 genes, 14.1% mapped). About two thirds of the mapped peptides of each organism (65.7% and 73.2%, respectively) corresponded to crucial enzymes for the basal metabolism and standard cellular processes. However, the proportion of P. carinii genes relative to those of S. pombe was significantly smaller for the "amino acid metabolism" category of pathways than for all other categories taken together (40 versus 114 against 278 versus 427, P<0.002). Importantly, we identified in P. carinii only 2 enzymes specifically dedicated to the synthesis of the 20 standard amino acids. By contrast all the 54 enzymes dedicated to this synthesis reported in the KEGG atlas for S. pombe were detected upon reannotation of S. pombe proteome (2 versus 54 against 278 versus 427, P<0.0001). This finding strongly suggests that species of the genus Pneumocystis are scavenging amino acids from their host's lung environment. Consequently, they would have no form able to live independently from another organism, and these parasites would be obligate in addition to being opportunistic. These findings have implications for the management of patients susceptible to P. jirovecii infection given that the only source of infection would be other humans.

The DYRK-family kinase Pom1 phosphorylates the F-BAR protein Cdc15 to prevent division at cell poles.

Division site positioning is critical for both symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions. In many organisms, positive and negative signals cooperate to position the contractile actin ring for cytokinesis. In rod-shaped fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe cells, division at midcell is achieved through positive Mid1/anillin-dependent signaling emanating from the central nucleus and negative signals from the dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase family kinase Pom1 at the cell poles. In this study, we show that Pom1 directly phosphorylates the F-BAR protein Cdc15, a central component of the cytokinetic ring. Pom1-dependent phosphorylation blocks Cdc15 binding to paxillin Pxl1 and C2 domain protein Fic1 and enhances Cdc15 dynamics. This promotes ring sliding from cell poles, which prevents septum assembly at the ends of cells with a displaced nucleus or lacking Mid1. Pom1 also slows down ring constriction. These results indicate that a strong negative signal from the Pom1 kinase at cell poles converts Cdc15 to its closed state, destabilizes the actomyosin ring, and thus promotes medial septation.

Heterologous expression in Escherichia coli of Neurospora crassa neutral trehalase as an active enzyme

Neutral trehalase from Neurospora crassa was expressed in Escherichia coli as a polypeptide of similar to 84 kDa in agreement with the theoretical size calculated from the corresponding cDNA. The recombinant neutral trehalase, purified by affinity chromatography exhibited a specific activity of 80-150 mU/mg protein. Optima of pH and temperature were 7.0 and 30 degrees C, respectively. The enzyme was absolutely specific for trehalose, and was quite sensitive to incubation at 40 degrees C. The recombinant enzyme was totally dependent on calcium, and was inhibited by ATP, copper, silver, aluminium and cobalt. K(M) was 42 mM, and V(max) was 30.6 nmol of glucose/min. The recombinant protein was phosphorylated by cAMP-dependent protein kinase, but not significantly activated. Immunoblotting with polyclonal antiserum prepared against the recombinant protein showed that neutral trehalase protein levels increased during exponential phase of N. crassa growth and dropped at the stationary phase. This is the first report of a neutral trehalase produced in E. coli with similar biochemical properties described for fungi native neutral trehalases, including calcium-dependence. (C) 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

A human Cds1-related kinase that functions downstream of ATM protein in the cellular response to DNA damage

Checkpoints maintain the order and fidelity of the eukaryotic cell cycle, and defects in checkpoints contribute to genetic instability and cancer. Much of our current understanding of checkpoints comes from genetic studies conducted in yeast. In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe (Sp), SpRad3 is an essential component of both the DNA damage and DNA replication checkpoints. The SpChk1 and SpCds1 protein kinases function downstream of SpRad3. SpChk1 is an effector of the DNA damage checkpoint and, in the absence of SpCds1, serves an essential function in the DNA replication checkpoint. SpCds1 functions in the DNA replication checkpoint and in the S phase DNA damage checkpoint. Human homologs of both SpRad3 and SpChk1 but not SpCds1 have been identified. Here we report the identification of a human cDNA encoding a protein (designated HuCds1) that shares sequence, structural, and functional similarity to SpCds1. HuCds1 was modified by phosphorylation and activated in response to ionizing radiation. It was also modified in response to hydroxyurea treatment. Functional ATM protein was required for HuCds1 modification after ionizing radiation but not after hydroxyurea treatment. Like its fission yeast counterpart, human Cds1 phosphorylated Cdc25C to promote the binding of 14-3-3 proteins. These findings suggest that the checkpoint function of HuCds1 is conserved in yeast and mammals.

Cdc25 Inhibited In Vivo and In Vitro by Checkpoint Kinases Cds1 and Chk1

In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, the protein kinase Cds1 is activated by the S–M replication checkpoint that prevents mitosis when DNA is incompletely replicated. Cds1 is proposed to regulate Wee1 and Mik1, two tyrosine kinases that inhibit the mitotic kinase Cdc2. Here, we present evidence from in vivo and in vitro studies, which indicates that Cds1 also inhibits Cdc25, the phosphatase that activates Cdc2. In an in vivo assay that measures the rate at which Cdc25 catalyzes mitosis, Cds1 contributed to a mitotic delay imposed by the S–M replication checkpoint. Cds1 also inhibited Cdc25-dependent activation of Cdc2 in vitro. Chk1, a protein kinase that is required for the G2–M damage checkpoint that prevents mitosis while DNA is being repaired, also inhibited Cdc25 in the in vitro assay. In vitro, Cds1 and Chk1 phosphorylated Cdc25 predominantly on serine-99. The Cdc25 alanine-99 mutation partially impaired the S–M replication and G2–M damage checkpoints in vivo. Thus, Cds1 and Chk1 seem to act in different checkpoint responses to regulate Cdc25 by similar mechanisms.

Functional Domains of Rep2, a Transcriptional Activator Subunit for Res2–Cdc10, Controlling the Cell Cycle “Start”

In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, passage from G1 to S-phase requires the execution of the transcriptional factor complex that consists of the Cdc10 and Res1/2 molecules. This complex activates the MluI cell cycle box cis-element contained in genes essential for S-phase onset and progression. The rep2+ gene, isolated as a multicopy suppressor of a temperature-sensitive cdc10 mutant, has been postulated to encode a putative transcriptional activator subunit for the Res2–Cdc10 complex. To identify the rep2+ function and molecularly define its domain organization, we reconstituted the Res2–Cdc10 complex-dependent transcriptional activation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Reconstitution experiments, deletion analyses using one and two hybrid systems, and in vivo Res2 coimmunoprecipitation assays show that the Res2–Cdc10 complex itself can recognize but cannot activate MluI cell cycle box without Rep2, and that consistent with its postulated function, Rep2 contains 45-amino acid Res2 binding and 22-amino acid transcriptional activation domains in the middle and C terminus of the molecule, respectively. The functional essentiality of these domains is also demonstrated by their requirement for rescue of the cold-sensitive rep2 deletion mutant of fission yeast.

A WD Repeat Protein Controls the Cell Cycle and Differentiation by Negatively Regulating Cdc2/B-Type Cyclin Complexes

In the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, p34cdc2 plays a central role controlling the cell cycle. We recently isolated a new gene named srw1+, capable of encoding a WD repeat protein, as a multicopy suppressor of hyperactivated p34cdc2. Cells lacking srw1+ are sterile and defective in cell cycle controls. When starved for nitrogen source, they fail to effectively arrest in G1 and die of accelerated mitotic catastrophe if regulation of p34cdc2/Cdc13 by inhibitory tyrosine phosphorylation is compromised by partial inactivation of Wee1 kinase. Fertility is restored to the disruptant by deletion of Cig2 B-type cyclin or slight inactivation of p34cdc2. srw1+ shares functional similarity with rum1+, having abilities to induce endoreplication and restore fertility to rum1 disruptants. In the srw1 disruptant, Cdc13 fails to be degraded when cells are starved for nitrogen. We conclude that Srw1 controls differentiation and cell cycling at least by negatively regulating Cig2- and Cdc13-associated p34cdc2 and that one of its roles is to down-regulate the level of the mitotic cyclin particularly in nitrogen-poor environments.

Arabidopsis Rho-Related GTPases: Differential Gene Expression in Pollen and Polar Localization in Fission Yeast1

The Rho small GTP-binding proteins are versatile, conserved molecular switches in eukaryotic signal transduction. Plants contain a unique subfamily of Rho-GTPases called Rop (Rho-related GTPases from plants). Our previous studies involving injection of antibodies indicated that the pea Rop GTPase Rop1Ps is critical for pollen tube growth. In this study we show that overexpression of an apparent Arabidopsis ortholog of Rop1Ps, Rop1At, induces isotropic cell growth in fission yeast (Schizosaccharomyces pombe) and that green fluorescence protein-tagged Rop1At displays polar localization to the site of growth in yeast. We found that Rop1At and two other Arabidopsis Rops, Rop3At and Rop5At, are all expressed in mature pollen. All three pollen Rops fall into the same subgroup as Rop1Ps and diverge from those Rops that are not expressed in mature pollen, suggesting a coupling of the structural conservation of Rop GTPases to their gene expression in pollen. However, pollen-specific transcript accumulation for Rop1At is much higher than that for Rop3At and Rop5At. Furthermore, Rop1At is specifically expressed in anthers, whereas Rop3At and Rop5At are also expressed in vegetative tissues. In transgenic plants containing the Rop1At promoter:GUS fusion gene, GUS is specifically expressed in mature pollen and pollen tubes. We propose that Rop1At may play a predominant role in the regulation of polarized cell growth in pollen, whereas its close relatives Rop3At and Rop5At may be functionally redundant to Rop1At in pollen.