Respuestas anatómico fisiológicas frente a estrés hídrico en plantaciones de especies de crecimiento rápido para la producción de biomasa

El objetivo general de la presente Tesis es identificar algunas de las características anatómico-fisiológicas que confieren la capacidad de alcanzar una mejor productividad bajo clima mediterráneo a plantas de diversos genotipos de los géneros Populus y Eucalyptus, caracterizados por su carácter pionero, elevado crecimiento y vulnerabilidad a la cavitación. En los dos primeros capítulos se hace un seguimiento de la conductancia estomática a una selección de clones de eucalipto cultivados en invernadero, sometidos a diferentes dotaciones hídricas. Se realizaron además mediciones periódicas del pH de la savia del tallo y de la pérdida de conductividad hidráulica para investigar su implicación en la regulación química e hidraúlica del cierre estomático. Las variaciones en el pH de la savia obtenidas parecen responder a cambios en el déficit de presión de vapor de agua atmosférico y no a diferencias en la disponibilidad de agua en el suelo. La conductancia estomática presentó una correlación positiva significativa con el pH de la savia, pero no con la conductividad hidráulica. La variabilidad de la conductividad hidráulica máxima se discute a la luz de recientes investigaciones sobre los materiales constituyentes de las membranas de las punteaduras. Los clones que mostraron mayores conductancias hidráulicas y estomáticas presentaron valores más altos de producción y supervivencia, poniendo de manifiesto la utilidad del estudio de estas variables. Por el contrario, los valores más bajos de conductancia estomática e hidraúlica se encontraron en clones que han resultado un fracaso en plantaciones comerciales, en particular, fue destacable el mal resultado de un clon procedente de autocruzamiento respecto de otros híbridos. En el tercer capítulo de la tesis se estudian características anatómicas y funcionales del xilema relacionadas con la eficiencia en el transporte de agua a las hojas, y que pueden afectar directa o indirectamente a la transpiración y al crecimiento. Los estudios anatómicos fueron realizados sobre brotes anuales de chopo en una plantación situada en Granada, en condiciones de riego limitante. La combinación de rasgos anatómicos más favorable de cara a la producción de biomasa fue una densidad alta de vasos de diámetro intermedio. Los clones más productivos figuraron entre los más resistentes a la cavitación. Para estudiar el crecimiento de masas arboladas se utilizan frecuentemente parámetros fisiológicos como el índice de area foliar (LAI). La estimación del LAI a partir de fotografías hemisféricas aplicada a tallares de chopo plantados a alta densidad y a turno corto para biomasa se lleva a cabo mediante una metodología reciente empleada y discutida en el cuarto capítulo de la Tesis. Los resultados muestran que las diferencias de producción existentes entre genotipos, localidades de medición con diferentes dosis de riego, y años, pueden predecirse a partir de la determinación del índice de área foliar tanto por métodos directos como indirectos de estimación. Tanto los estudios realizados en eucalipto como en chopo han mostrado que los genotipos con menores producciones de biomasa en campo alcanzaron los menores valores de conductancia estomática en las condiciones más favorables así como el menor número de vasos en el xilema. La estrecha relación entre crecimiento y LAI confirma una vez más la importancia del desarrollo de la copa para sostener un buen crecimiento. El mayor desarrollo de la copa y rendimiento en biomasa se midieron en uno de los clones con un número de vasos más elevado, y menor vulnerabilidad a la cavitación en condiciones de estrés. Estos resultados ponen de manifiesto la importancia de las características anatómicas y funcionales del xilema como condicionantes del patrón de crecimiento de las plantas y el comportamiento de los estomas. ABSTRACT A number of anatomical xylem traits and physiological variables were analyzed in genotypes of both the Populus and Eucalyptus genera with the main aim of identifying traits in the genotypes which confer the ability to produce an acceptable biomass yield under Mediterranean climatic conditions. In the first two chapters of this PhD, the results of two experiments carried out on several clones of the species Eucalyptus globulus Labill. are presented. Chapters three and four include the results of another two trials on four poplar hybrid genotypes. One of the initial plant responses to water stress is stomatal closure, which can be triggered by hydraulic and/or chemical signals. The two first chapters of this PhD deal with trials in which stomatal conductance and percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity were monitored on a set of eucalyptus clones supplied by ENCE (former National Cellulose Company) and currently used in the company’s own commercial plantings. The experimental trials were carried out in greenhouses and the plants were submitted to two different watering regimes. The pH of the stem sap was periodically measured as the greenhouse temperature and humidity changed. The aim of these measurements was to investigate the role of both sap pH and percentage loss of hydraulic conductivity on stomatal regulation. The results obtained suggest that changes in sap pH are a response to vapor pressure deficit changes rather than to differences in soil water availability. We found significant correlation between stomatal conductance and sap pH, although no significant relationship was found between stomatal conductance and hydraulic conductivity. Variability in maximum hydraulic conductivity is discussed based on recent pit membrane constituent research. The study of hydraulic conductivity proved helpful in order to detect the clones with both higher growth and greater chance of survival, since clones displaying the lowest hydraulic conductivities were those that failed in commercial plantings. Anatomical xylem traits define the water transport efficiency to leaves and can therefore limit transpiration and growth. The third chapter of this PhD addresses anatomical xylem traits in poplar. One year old stem samples were taken from a water-stressed trial in Granada. The anatomical xylem study proved useful for detecting the lowest yielding genotypes. Clones with intermediate vessel size and high vessel densities were found to be those with the highest biomass yield. Differences in cavitation resistance depending on the clone tested and the water treatment applied were also found. The clones with the highest biomass yield were found to be among the most cavitation resistant clones in each watering regime. Xylem and physiological traits along with stomatal behavior are useful tools to determine plant growth. In order to study plantings or forests, it is more common to employ other physiological variables such as leaf area index (LAI). LAI estimation from hemispherical photographs applied to short rotation woody crops is a recently developed method that still requires fine tuning through further investigation. In the fourth chapter, data from LAI monitoring over two consecutive years were analyzed in two different locations where different irrigation treatments were applied. The results showed that differences in yield between genotypes, different irrigation regimes and years could be predicted by using the LAI estimates, either through direct or indirect estimation methods. Our studies of poplar and eucalyptus have shown that the field-grown genotypes with the lowest biomass yield displayed the lowest values of stomatal conductance under the most favorable environmental conditions and also had a low number of xylem conduits. The close relationship between LAI and growth highlights the importance of crown development in biomass growth. The highest LAI and biomass yield were recorded in one of the clones with higher vessel density and the lowest vulnerability to cavitation under stress conditions. These results underline the importance of research into anatomical and functional traits as factors influencing plant growth patterns and stomatal behavior.

Irrigation efficiency and water-policy implications for river-basin resilience

Rising demand for food, fiber, and biofuels drives expanding irrigation withdrawals from surface water and groundwater. Irrigation efficiency and water savings have become watchwords in response to climate-induced hydrological variability, increasing freshwater demand for other uses including ecosystem water needs, and low economic productivity of irrigation compared to most other uses. We identify three classes of unintended consequences, presented here as paradoxes. Ever-tighter cycling of water has been shown to increase resource use, an example of the efficiency paradox. In the absence of effective policy to constrain irrigated-area expansion using "saved water", efficiency can aggravate scarcity, deteriorate resource quality, and impair river basin resilience through loss of flexibility and redundancy. Water scarcity and salinity effects in the lower reaches of basins (symptomatic of the scale paradox) may partly be offset over the short-term through groundwater pumping or increasing surface water storage capacity. However, declining ecological flows and increasing salinity have important implications for riparian and estuarine ecosystems and for non-irrigation human uses of water including urban supply and energy generation, examples of the sectoral paradox. This paper briefly considers three regional contexts with broadly similar climatic and water-resource conditions – central Chile, southwestern US, and south-central Spain – where irrigation efficiency directly influences basin resilience. The comparison leads to more generic insights on water policy in relation to irrigation efficiency and emerging or overdue needs for environmental protection.

Rapid Regulation by Acid pH of Cell Wall Adjustment and Leaf Growth in Maize Plants Responding to Reversal of Water Stress1

The role of acid secretion in regulating short-term changes in growth rate and wall extensibility was investigated in emerging first leaves of intact, water-stressed maize (Zea mays L.) seedlings. A novel approach was used to measure leaf responses to injection of water or solutions containing potential regulators of growth. Both leaf elongation and wall extensibility, as measured with a whole-plant creep extensiometer, increased dramatically within minutes of injecting water, 0.5 mm phosphate, or strong (50 mm) buffer solutions with pH ≤ 5.0 into the cell-elongation zone of water-stressed leaves. In contrast, injecting buffer solutions at pH ≥ 5.5 inhibited these fast responses. Solutions containing 0.5 mm orthovanadate or erythrosin B to inhibit wall acidification by plasma membrane H+-ATPases were also inhibitory. Thus, cell wall extensibility and leaf growth in water-stressed plants remained inhibited, despite the increased availability of (injected) water when accompanying increases in acid-induced wall loosening were prevented. However, growth was stimulated when pH 4.5 buffers were included with the vanadate injections. These findings suggest that increasing the availability of water to expanding cells in water-stressed leaves signals rapid increases in outward proton pumping by plasma membrane H+-ATPases. Resultant increases in cell wall extensibility participate in the regulation of water uptake, cell expansion, and leaf growth.

cis-Isomers of Cytokinins Predominate in Chickpea Seeds throughout Their Development1

Trans-isomers of cytokinins (CK) are thought to predominate and have greater biological activity than corresponding cis-isomers in higher plants. However, this study demonstrates a system within which the predominant CK are cis-isomers. CK were measured at four developmental stages in developing chickpea (Cicer arietinum L. cultivar Kaniva) seeds by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Concentrations were highest at an early endospermic fluid stage and fell considerably when the cotyledons expanded. The cis-isomers of zeatin nucleotide ([9R-MP]Z), zeatin riboside ([9R]Z), and zeatin (Z) were present in greater concentrations than those of corresponding trans-isomers: (trans)[9R-MP]Z, (trans)[9R]Z, (trans)Z, or dihydrozeatin riboside. Dihydrozeatin, dihydrozeatin nucleotide, and the isopentenyl-type CK concentrations were either low or not detectable. Root xylem exudates also contained predominantly cis-isomers of [9R-MP]Z and [9R]Z. Identities of (cis)[9R]Z and (cis)Z were confirmed by comparison of ion ratios and retention indices, and a full spectrum was obtained for (cis)[9R]Z. Tissues were extracted under conditions that minimized the possibility of RNase hydrolysis of tRNA following tissue disruption, being a significant source of the cis-CK. Since no isomerization of (trans)[2H]CK internal standards occurred, it is unlikely that the cis-CK resulted from enzymic or nonenzymic isomerization during extraction. Although quantities of total CK varied, similar CK profiles were found among three different chickpea cultivars and between adequately watered and water-stressed plants. Developing chickpea seeds will be a useful system for investigating the activity of cis-CK or determining the origin and metabolism of free CK.

Regulation of K+ Channels in Maize Roots by Water Stress and Abscisic Acid1

Root cortical and stelar protoplasts were isolated from maize (Zea mays L.) plants that were either well watered or water stressed, and the patch-clamp technique was used to investigate their plasma membrane K+ channel activity. In the root cortex water stress did not significantly affect inward- or outward-rectifying K+ conductances relative to those observed in well-watered plants. In contrast, water stress significantly reduced the magnitude of the outward-rectifying K+ current in the root stele but had little effect on the inward-rectifying K+ current. Pretreating well-watered plants with abscisic acid also significantly affected K+ currents in a way that was consistent with abscisic acid mediating, at least in part, the response of roots to water stress. It is proposed that the K+ channels underlying the K+ currents in the root stelar cells represent pathways that allow K+ exchange between the root symplasm and xylem apoplast. It is suggested that the regulation of K+ channel activity in the root in response to water stress could be part of an important adaptation of the plant to survive drying soils.

Mapeamento associativo para múltiplos ambientes e múltiplos locos, visando tolerância à seca em milho

A seca é um dos estresses abióticos mais importantes na cultura do milho, o qual ocasiona reduções significativas na produção de grãos. A arquitetura genética da tolerância à seca é complexa, fazendo-se necessária a melhor compreensão desse caráter. Estudos envolvendo mapeamento associativo são úteis por explorarem a variação genética de caracteres quantitativos e, adicionalmente, levam em conta informações acerca de genótipos, ambientes e interações genótipo por ambiente (G × E). Ao considerar efeitos de G × E em modelos de mapeamento associativo há possibilidade de identificar regiões no genoma associadas à condições e ambientes específicos. Este trabalho teve como objetivo detectar associações relacionadas à tolerância à seca em milho por meio de um modelo de mapeamento associativo para múltiplos ambientes e múltiplos locos, o qual permitiu distinguir associações com efeitos ambiente-específico daquelas com efeitos principais e de interação associação por ambiente (QEI). O painel associativo foi composto por 190 linhagens, classificadas de acordo com os grupos heteróticos quanto ao tipo de grão. Marcadores SNPs (∼500k) foram utilizados para a genotipagem do painel associativo. Duas linhagens (L228-3 e L3) foram usadas como testadores comuns e os híbridos obtidos foram avaliados em duas localidades (Janaúba-MG e Teresina-PI), dois anos agrícolas (2010 e 2011), sob duas condições de tratamento (irrigado e não irrigado). Ao total, consideraram-se seis caracteres: peso de grãos, intervalo de florescimento, florescimento feminino e masculino, altura de planta e de espiga. Consideraram-se dois grupos de mapeamento, agrupados de acordo com os testadores utilizados. SNPs foram úteis para testar associações ao longo do genoma do milho e investigar o relacionamento genético entre indivíduos. O modelo de mapeamento associativo, com inclusão de informações sobre interação G × E, detectou o total de 179 associações, e o maior número de associações foram relacionadas aos caracteres de florescimento. A maioria das associações (168) apresentaram QEI significativo, sendo que o tamanho e a magnitude desses efeitos distinguiram-se de acordo com o ambiente em avaliação. Apenas o caráter florescimento feminino não apresentou associações com efeitos estáveis ao longo dos ambientes em estudo. A detecção de algumas associações em posições próximas do genoma evidenciam possíveis efeitos de pleiotropia. Algumas associações foram co-localizadas em regiões do genoma do milho relacionadas à tolerância à seca, sendo que algumas dessas associações estavam envolvidas a fatores pertencentes à vias metabólicas de interesse. O presente estudo forneceu informações úteis para a compreensão da base genética da tolerância à seca em milho sob os ambientes específicos em avaliação.

Imaging Land Subsidence Induced by Groundwater Extraction in Beijing (China) Using Satellite Radar Interferometry

Beijing is one of the most water-stressed cities in the world. Due to over-exploitation of groundwater, the Beijing region has been suffering from land subsidence since 1935. In this study, the Small Baseline InSAR technique has been employed to process Envisat ASAR images acquired between 2003 and 2010 and TerraSAR-X stripmap images collected from 2010 to 2011 to investigate land subsidence in the Beijing region. The maximum subsidence is seen in the eastern part of Beijing with a rate greater than 100 mm/year. Comparisons between InSAR and GPS derived subsidence rates show an RMS difference of 2.94 mm/year with a mean of 2.41 ± 1.84 mm/year. In addition, a high correlation was observed between InSAR subsidence rate maps derived from two different datasets (i.e., Envisat and TerraSAR-X). These demonstrate once again that InSAR is a powerful tool for monitoring land subsidence. InSAR derived subsidence rate maps have allowed for a comprehensive spatio-temporal analysis to identify the main triggering factors of land subsidence. Some interesting relationships in terms of land subsidence were found with groundwater level, active faults, accumulated soft soil thickness and different aquifer types. Furthermore, a relationship with the distances to pumping wells was also recognized in this work.

Mapping water quality and substrate cover in optically complex coastal and reef waters: an integrated approach

Sustainable management of coastal and coral reef environments requires regular collection of accurate information on recognized ecosystem health indicators. Satellite image data and derived maps of water column and substrate biophysical properties provide an opportunity to develop baseline mapping and monitoring programs for coastal and coral reef ecosystem health indicators. A significant challenge for satellite image data in coastal and coral reef water bodies is the mixture of both clear and turbid waters. A new approach is presented in this paper to enable production of water quality and substrate cover type maps, linked to a field based coastal ecosystem health indicator monitoring program, for use in turbid to clear coastal and coral reef waters. An optimized optical domain method was applied to map selected water quality (Secchi depth, Kd PAR, tripton, CDOM) and substrate cover type (seagrass, algae, sand) parameters. The approach is demonstrated using commercially available Landsat 7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper image data over a coastal embayment exhibiting the range of substrate cover types and water quality conditions commonly found in sub-tropical and tropical coastal environments. Spatially extensive and quantitative maps of selected water quality and substrate cover parameters were produced for the study site. These map products were refined by interactions with management agencies to suit the information requirements of their monitoring and management programs. (c) 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Genotypic consistency in the expression of leaf water potential in rice (Oryza sativa L.)

Early work has shown variation in the grain yield of rice cultivars grown under water stress conditions to be associated with the plant water status, mainly with the maintenance of high leaf water potential (LWP) at flowering and grain filling stage. Considerable variation for LWP among rice varieties has been recorded. The present work was designed to investigate genotypic consistency in water potential within the plant and under canopy manipulation to vary plant water requirement. In a glasshouse experiment, with six rice genotypes, a consistent water potential gradient from stem base to leaf tip has been observed. Leaf tip water potential has been found as the minimum LWP that can be recorded at any time of stress. Genotypes with similar canopy size could maintain different levels of LWP under stress conditions. In a field experiment, with four selected lines, four canopy sizes and two canopy mixture treatments were introduced prior to the imposition of control, mild and severe water stress conditions. It was found that the line differences in LWP and relative water content (RWC) were expressed under both mild and severe stress conditions, regardless of canopy size, tiller number and whether they were mixed with another line with different capacity to maintain LWP. Although there were some differences among canopy size treatments for radiation interception in three water conditions, canopy manipulation (plant size) within a line did not affect the expression of LWP and hence genotypic variation in LWP was maintained. Under both glasshouse and field conditions, lines that maintained high LWP had larger xylem diameter and stem areas than those that had low LWP. The results indicated that the size of the vascular bundles could influence the maintenance of plant water relations under water deficit. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Minimising cold damage during reproductive development among temperate rice genotypes. II. Genotypic variation and flowering traits related to cold tolerance screening

Low temperature during microspore development increases spikelet sterility and reduces grain yield in rice (Oryza sativa L.). The objectives of this study were to determine genotypic variation in spikelet sterility in the field in response to low-temperature and then to examine the use of physio-morphological traits at flowering to screen for cold tolerance. Multiple-sown field experiments were conducted over 4 consecutive years in the rice-growing region of Australia to increase the likelihood of encountering low-temperature during microspore development. More than 50 cultivars of various origins were evaluated, with 7 cultivars common to all 4 years. The average minimum temperature for 9 days during microspore development was used as a covariate in the analysis to compare cultivars at a similar temperature. The low-temperature conditions in Year 4 identified cold-tolerant cultivars such as Hayayuki and HSC55 and susceptible cultivars such as Sasanishiki and Doongara. After low temperature conditions, spikelet sterility was negatively correlated with the number of engorged pollen grains, anther length, anther area, anther width, and stigma area. The number of engorged pollen grains and anther length were found to be facultative traits as their relationships with spikelet sterility were identified only after cold water exposure and did not exist under non-stressed conditions.

Quantitative diatom-based reconstruction of paleoenvironmental conditions in Florida Bay and Biscayne Bay, U.S.A.

The spatial and temporal distribution of modern diatom assemblages in surface sediments, on the most dominant macrophytes, and in the water column at 96 locations in Florida Bay, Biscayne Bay and adjacent regions were examined in order to develop paleoenvironmental prediction models for this region. Analyses of these distributions revealed distinct temporal and spatial differences in assemblages among the locations. The differences among diatom assemblages living on subaquatic vegetation and sediments, and in the water column were significant. Because concentrations of salts, total phosphorus (WTP), total nitrogen (WTN) and total organic carbon (WTOC) are partly controlled by water management in this region, diatom-based models were produced to assess these variables. Discriminant function analyses showed that diatoms can also be successfully used to reconstruct changes in the abundance of diatom assemblages typical for different habitats and life habits. ^ To interpret paleoenvironmental changes, changes in salinity, WTN, WTP and WTOC were inferred from diatoms preserved in sediment cores collected along environmental gradients in Florida Bay (4 cores) and from nearshore and offshore locations in Biscayne Bay (3 cores). The reconstructions showed that water quality conditions in these estuaries have been fluctuating for thousands of years due to natural processes and sea-level changes, but almost synchronized shifts in diatom assemblages occurred in the mid-1960’s at all coring locations (except Ninemile Bank and Bob Allen Bank in Florida Bay). These alterations correspond to the major construction of numerous water management structures on the mainland. Additionally, all the coring sites (except Card Sound Bank, Biscayne Bay and Trout Cove, Florida Bay) showed decreasing salinity and fluctuations in nutrient levels in the last two decades that correspond to increased rainfall in the 1990’s and increased freshwater discharge to the bays, a result of increased freshwater deliveries to the Everglades by South Florida Water Management District in the 1980’s and 1990’s. Reconstructions of the abundance of diatom assemblages typical for different habitats and life habits revealed multiple sources of diatoms to the coring locations and that epiphytic assemblages in both bays increased in abundance since the early 1990’s. ^

Water quality and zooplankton in tanks with larvae of Brycon Orbignyanus (Valenciennes, 1949)

Devido à importância das condições das variáveis da água e do alimento disponível no desenvolvimento e sobrevivência das larvas de peixes, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o efeito do uso de dois tratamentos alimentares (ração + zooplâncton e somente zooplâncton) e a qualidade da água, em tanques de larvicultura de Brycon orbignyanus. A transparência total da água (45 cm) esteve associada principalmente ao curto tempo de residência, fluxo contínuo e baixa profundidade. As concentrações de oxigênio dissolvido variaram de 1,32 a 7,00 mg.L-1 no tratamento contendo ração + zooplâncton, e de 1,82 a 7,60 mg.L-1 no tratamento contendo somente zooplâncton. Os nutrientes foram diretamente influenciados pela adição de ração no meio com exceção do nitrito. Rotifera apresentou a maior densidade, variando ao longo do período experimental de 8,7 x 10(5) a 1,3 x 10(6) org.m-3 entre os quatro tanques estudados, num total de dez espécies. A menor densidade foi observada para Cladocera, variando de 4,7 x 10(4) a 2,1 x 10(5) org.m-3 num total de seis espécies encontradas, sendo Diaphanosoma birgei a única espécie classificada como muito freqüente. O uso de ração junto com zooplâncton proporcionou melhor rendimento para larvas de B. orbignyanus.

Leaf water potential and sap flow as indicators of water stress in Crimson ‘seedless’ grapevines under different irrigation strategies

Vitis vinifera L. cv. Crimson Seedless is a late season red table grape developed in 1989, with a high market value and increasingly cultivated under protected environments to extend the availability of seedless table grapes into the late fall. The purpose of this work was to evaluate leaf water potential and sap flow as indicators of water stress in Crimson Seedless vines under standard and reduced irrigation strategy, consisting of 70 % of the standard irrigation depth. Additionally, two sub-treatments were applied, consisting of normal irrigation throughout the growing season and a short irrigation induced stress period between veraison and harvest. Leaf water potential measurements coherently signaled crop-available water variations caused by different irrigation treatments, suggesting that this plant-based method can be reliably used to identify water-stress conditions. The use of sap flow density data to establish a ratio based on a reference ‘well irrigated vine’ and less irrigated vines can potentially be used to signal differences in the transpiration rates, which may be suitable for improving irrigation management strategies while preventing undesirable levels of water stress. Although all four irrigation strategies resulted in the production of quality table grapes, significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found in both berry weight and sugar content between the standard irrigation and reduced irrigation treatments. Reduced irrigation increased slightly the average berry size as well as sugar content and technical maturity index. The 2-week irrigation stress period had a negative effect on these parameters.

Leaf water potential and sap flow as indicators of water stress in Crimson 'seedless' grapevines under different irrigation strategies

Abstract Vitis vinifera L. cv. Crimson Seedless is a late season red table grape developed in 1989, with a high market value and increasingly cultivated under protected environments to extend the availability of seedless table grapes into the late fall. The purpose of this work was to evaluate leaf water potential and sap flow as indicators of water stress in Crimson Seedless vines under standard and reduced irrigation strategy, consisting of 70 % of the standard irrigation depth. Additionally, two sub-treatments were applied, consisting of normal irrigation throughout the growing season and a short irrigation induced stress period between veraison and harvest. Leaf water potential measurements coherently signaled crop-available water variations caused by different irrigation treatments, suggesting that this plant-based method can be reliably used to identify water-stress conditions. The use of sap flow density data to establish a ratio based on a reference ‘well irrigated vine’ and less irrigated vines can potentially be used to signal differences in the transpiration rates, which may be suitable for improving irrigation management strategies while preventing undesirable levels of water stress. Although all four irrigation strategies resulted in the production of quality table grapes, significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found in both berry weight and sugar content between the standard irrigation and reduced irrigation treatments. Reduced irrigation increased slightly the average berry size as well as sugar content and technical maturity index. The 2-week irrigation stress period had a negative effect on these parameters.

On the extent of genetic variation for transpiration efficiency in sorghum

A glasshouse study examined 49 diverse sorghum lines for variation in transpiration efficiency. Three of the 49 lines grown were Sorghum spp, native to Australia; one was the major weed Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), and the remaining 45 lines were cultivars of Sorghum bicolor. All plants were grown under non-limiting water and nutrient conditions using a semi-automatic pot watering system designed to facilitate accurate measurement of water use. Plants were harvested 56-58 days after sowing and dry weights of plant parts were determined. Transpiration efficiency differed significantly among cultivars. The 3 Australian native sorghums had much lower transpiration efficiency than the other 46 cultivars, which ranged from 7.7 to 6.0 g/kg. For the 46 diverse cultivars, the ratio of range in transpiration efficiency to its l.s.d. was 2.0, which was similar to that found among more adapted cultivars in a previous study. This is a significant finding as it suggests that there is likely to be little pay-off from pursuing screening of unadapted material for increased variation in transpiration efficiency. It is necessary, however, also to examine absolute levels of transpiration efficiency to determine whether increased levels have been found. The cultivar with greatest transpiration efficiency in this study (IS9710) had a value 9% greater (P < 0.05) than the accepted standard for adapted sorghum cultivars. The potential impact of such an increase in transpiration efficiency warrants continued effort to capture it. Transpiration efficiency has been related theoretically and experimentally to the degree of carbon isotope discrimination in leaf tissue in sorghum, which thus offers a relatively simple selection index. In this study, the variation in transpiration efficiency was not related simply to carbon isotope discrimination. Significant associations of transpiration efficiency with ash content and indices of photosynthetic capacity were found. However, the associations were not strong. These results suggest that a simple screening technique could not be based on any of the measures or indices analysed in this study. A better understanding of the physiological basis of the observed genetic differences in transpiration efficiency may assist in developing reliable selection indices. It was concluded that the potential value of the improvement in transpiration efficiency over the accepted standard and the degree of genetic variation found warrant further study on this subject. It was suggested that screening for genetic variation under water-limiting conditions may provide useful insights and should be pursued.