The economics of tea plantations in South India

Thc tea industry in lndia is going through a period of crisis. The crisis in brought about mainly by cost caculation and declining or stagnant prices. The impact of the present crisis is felt most by the owners of tea plantations in Kcrala . The present study assumes significance due to the fact that the critic which already affected Keralas tea industry is now threatening to extend to other tea-growing areas in south India. Today, ensuring a favourablc price to the producers via-a-via possibilities or reducing the cost of production through increase in productivity of land and labour are the main considerations. The main purpose of the study is to analyse the factors behind the crisis as well as exploring immediate and long-term measures for the sustained growth of the industry.

Employment and Income of Workers on Indonesian Oil Palm Plantations: Food Crisis at the Micro Level

The importance of oil palm sector for Indonesia is inevitable as the country currently serves as the world’s largest producer of crude palm oil. This paper focuses on the situation of workers on Indonesian oil palm plantations. It attempts to investigate whether the remarkable development of the sector is followed by employment opportunities and income generation for workers. This question is posed within the theoretical framework on the link between trade liberalisation and labour rights, particularly in a labour-intensive and low-skilled sector. Based on extensive field research in Riau, this paper confirms that despite the rapid development of the oil palm plantation sector in Indonesia, the situations of workers in the sector remain deplorable, particularly their employment status and income. This also attests that trade liberalisation in the sector adversely affects labour rights. The poor working conditions also have ramifications for food security at the micro level.

Nitrogen management is essential to prevent tropical oil palm plantations from causing ozone pollution

More than half the world's rainforest has been lost to agriculture since the Industrial Revolution. Among the most widespread tropical crops is oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): global production now exceeds 35 million tonnes per year. In Malaysia, for example, 13% of land area is now oil palm plantation, compared with 1% in 1974. There are enormous pressures to increase palm oil production for food, domestic products, and, especially, biofuels. Greater use of palm oil for biofuel production is predicated on the assumption that palm oil is an “environmentally friendly” fuel feedstock. Here we show, using measurements and models, that oil palm plantations in Malaysia directly emit more oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds than rainforest. These compounds lead to the production of ground-level ozone (O3), an air pollutant that damages human health, plants, and materials, reduces crop productivity, and has effects on the Earth's climate. Our measurements show that, at present, O3 concentrations do not differ significantly over rainforest and adjacent oil palm plantation landscapes. However, our model calculations predict that if concentrations of oxides of nitrogen in Borneo are allowed to reach those currently seen over rural North America and Europe, ground-level O3 concentrations will reach 100 parts per billion (109) volume (ppbv) and exceed levels known to be harmful to human health. Our study provides an early warning of the urgent need to develop policies that manage nitrogen emissions if the detrimental effects of palm oil production on air quality and climate are to be avoided.

Influence of management type on Diptera communities of coniferous plantations and deciduous woodlands

The contribution of four types of secondary woodlands to Scottish invertebrate biodiversity was investigated for coniferous plantation forestry, riparian ash-alder woodlands, early successional deciduous woodlands and climax deciduous woodlands. Considerable variation in the type and intensity of management within these four woodland types existed. Adult Diptera from 21 families, representing diverse trophic and ecological guilds, were sampled from 31 woodlands in the Aberdeenshire region of northeast Scotland, between June and August 2001. Environmental differences between woodlands were recorded at each site using environmental parameters such as pH and organic matter content, vegetation characteristics, including percentage canopy cover and dominant field layer plant species. Multivariate ordination techniques detected significant responses in the Dipteran communities to soil type, organic matter content, soil pH, field layer plant species richness, dominant field layer plant species and percentage cover of Pteridium aquilinum. Responses in terms of Dipteran abundance, species richness, diversity and evenness were observed to soil type and dominant species of the field layer vegetation. The role of woodland type and management in diversifying Diptera communities is discussed with a view to maintain and possibly enhance Dipteran and other invertebrate communities in Scottish secondary woodlands. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Nitrogen management is essential to prevent tropical oil palm plantations from causing ground-level ozone pollution

More than half the world's rainforest has been lost to agriculture since the Industrial Revolution. Among the most widespread tropical crops is oil palm (Elaeis guineensis): global production now exceeds 35 million tonnes per year. In Malaysia, for example, 13% of land area is now oil palm plantation, compared with 1% in 1974. There are enormous pressures to increase palm oil production for food, domestic products, and, especially, biofuels. Greater use of palm oil for biofuel production is predicated on the assumption that palm oil is an "environmentally friendly'' fuel feedstock. Here we show, using measurements and models, that oil palm plantations in Malaysia directly emit more oxides of nitrogen and volatile organic compounds than rainforest. These compounds lead to the production of ground-level ozone (O-3), an air pollutant that damages human health, plants, and materials, reduces crop productivity, and has effects on the Earth's climate. Our measurements show that, at present, O-3 concentrations do not differ significantly over rainforest and adjacent oil palm plantation landscapes. However, our model calculations predict that if concentrations of oxides of nitrogen in Borneo are allowed to reach those currently seen over rural North America and Europe, ground-level O-3 concentrations will reach 100 parts per billion (10(9)) volume (ppbv) and exceed levels known to be harmful to human health. Our study provides an early warning of the urgent need to develop policies that manage nitrogen emissions if the detrimental effects of palm oil production on air quality and climate are to be avoided.

Statistical evaluation of the early-stage development of Jatropha energy plantations in Northeastern Mexico

A systematic evaluation of agricultural factors affecting the adaptation of the tropical oil plant Jatropha curcas L. to the semi-arid subtropical climate in Northeastern Mexico has been conducted. The factors studied include plant density and topology, as well as fungi and virus abundances. A multiple regression analysis shows that total fruit production can be well predicted by the area per plant and the total presence of fungi. Four common herbicides and a mechanical weed control measure were established at a dedicated test array and their impact on plant productivity was assessed.

CHP toolkit: case study of LAIe sensitivity to discontinuity of canopy cover in fruit plantations

This paper presents an open-source canopy height profile (CHP) toolkit designed for processing small-footprint full-waveform LiDAR data to obtain the estimates of effective leaf area index (LAIe) and CHPs. The use of the toolkit is presented with a case study of LAIe estimation in discontinuous-canopy fruit plantations. The experiments are carried out in two study areas, namely, orange and almond plantations, with different percentages of canopy cover (48% and 40%, respectively). For comparison, two commonly used discrete-point LAIe estimation methods are also tested. The LiDAR LAIe values are first computed for each of the sites and each method as a whole, providing “apparent” site-level LAIe, which disregards the discontinuity of the plantations’ canopies. Since the toolkit allows for the calculation of the study area LAIe at different spatial scales, between-tree-level clumpingcan be easily accounted for and is then used to illustrate the impact of the discontinuity of canopy cover on LAIe retrieval. The LiDAR LAIe estimates are therefore computed at smaller scales as a mean of LAIe in various grid-cell sizes, providing estimates of “actual” site-level LAIe. Subsequently, the LiDAR LAIe results are compared with theoretical models of “apparent” LAIe versus “actual” LAIe, based on known percent canopy cover in each site. The comparison of those models to LiDAR LAIe derived from the smallest grid-cell sizes against the estimates of LAIe for the whole site has shown that the LAIe estimates obtained from the CHP toolkit provided values that are closest to those of theoretical models.

Ant community richness and composition across a gradient from Eucalyptus plantations to secondary Atlantic Forest

As florestas secundárias e plantações de espécies exóticas estão se expandindo nas paisagens tropicais. No entanto, nossa compreensão sobre o valor destas florestas para a conservação da biodiversidade de invertebrados ainda é incipiente. Neste trabalho, usamos a fauna de formigas de serapilheira para avaliar a diversidade desses insetos entre três florestas de Eucalyptus, sendo uma comercial (quatro anos de idade) e duas abandonadas em diferentes idades de regeneração (16 e 31 anos) e uma área de Mata Atlântica secundária. A riqueza total foi mais alta na floresta secundária e nos plantios de Eucalyptus abandonados há mais tempo. A densidade de espécies na floresta secundária foi significativamente maior quando comparado as plantações de Eucalyptus, mas não difere entre eucaliptais; análise de ordenação revelou diferenças na composição de espécies entre as plantações de Eucalyptus com subbosque ausente e com subbosque desenvolvido ou em desenvolvimento. Ainda, foi constatada uma sobreposição acentuada entre amostras de serapilheira das florestas de eucaliptos abandonadas há mais tempo e a floresta secundária. em geral, plantações de eucalipto foram caracterizadas pela presença de espécies generalistas e de ampla distribuição. Nossos resultados indicam que embora o subbosque de plantações de eucaliptos com maior idade de regeneração suporte um conjunto relativamente alto de espécies generalistas de formigas, é improvável que eucaliptais conservem a maioria das espécies de florestas primárias, especialmente predadores especializados, Dacetini e espécies nômades.

Fine root isotropy in Eucalyptus grandis plantations. Towards the prediction of root length densities from root counts on trench walls

The objectives of the study were to assess changes in fine root anisotropy and specific root lengths throughout the development of Eucalyptus grandis ( W. Hill ex Maiden) plantations and to establish a predictive model of root length density (RLD) from root intercept counts on trench walls. Fine root densities (<1 mm in diameter) were studied in 6-, 12-, 22-, 28-, 54-, 68- and 72-month-old E. grandis plantations established on deep Ferralsols in southern Brazil. Fine root intercepts were counted on 3 faces of 90-198 soil cubes (1 dm(3) in volume) in each stand and fine root lengths (L) were measured inside 576 soil cubes, sampled between the depths of 10 cm and 290 cm. The number of fine root intercepts was counted on one vertical face perpendicular to the planting row (N(t)), one vertical face parallel to the planting row (N(l)) and one horizontal face (N(h)), for each soil cube sampled. An overall isotropy of fine roots was shown by paired Student's t-tests between the numbers of fine roots intersecting each face of soil cubes at most stand ages and soil depths. Specific root lengths decreased with stand age in the upper soil layers and tended to increase in deep soil layers at the end of the rotation. A linear regression established between N(t) and L for all the soil cubes sampled accounted for 36% of the variability of L. Such a regression computed for mean Nt and L values at each sampling depth and stand age explained only 55% of the variability, as a result of large differences in the relationship between L and Nt depending on stand productivity. The equation RLD=1.89*LAI*N(t), where LAI was the stand leaf area index (m(2) m(-2)) and Nt was expressed as the number of root intercepts per cm(2), made it possible to predict accurately (R(2)=0.84) and without bias the mean RLDs (cm cm(-3)) per depth in each stand, for the whole data set of 576 soil cubes sampled between 2 years of age and the end of the rotation.

Seasonality of pathogenic fungi in mites of rubber tree plantations adjacent to fragments of Cerrado

Fungos são os patógenos mais freqüentemente observados em populações de ácaros, auxiliando o controle destes em diferentes culturas. Vinte e cinco amostras de folhas foram coletadas de cultivos de seringueiras vizinhas a dois fragmentos de vegetação de Cerrado. em cada seringal, 25 plantas foram selecionadas para coletas e sete folhas ao redor da copa foram coletadas até a altura de sete a oito metros do solo. Aproximadamente 250 indivíduos de Calacarus heveae Feres, Phyllocoptruta seringueirae Feres e Tenuipalpus heveae Baker, coletados aleatoriamente, foram montados. Hirsutella thompsonii Fisher foi observado nas três espécies de ácaros e T. heveae foi a espécie mais infectada. Os maiores níveis de infecção ocorreram de novembro a fevereiro (estação chuvosa). Na estação seca, os níveis de infecção ficaram abaixo dos 5%. H. thompsonii tem potencial para ser usado como micoacaricida na estação chuvosa.

Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) (Geoffroy, 1803) (Carnivora, Felidae) food habits in a mosaic of Atlantic Rainforest and eucalypt plantations of southeastern Brazil

A dieta de uma população de jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) (Geoffroy, 1803) (Carnivora, Felidae) foi estudada entre novembro de 2000 e novembro de 2001, em 24,9 km² de mosaico de Mata Atlântica secundária e reflorestamento de eucalipto na Serra de Paranapiacaba, São Paulo, Brasil. A análise das 26 amostras fecais e regurgitadas, obtidas em 570.1 km de percurso, indicou o consumo de 19 itens alimentares em um total de 74 ocorrências de presas. Pequenos mamíferos foram os itens mais frequentemente encontrados na dieta (42,5%), seguidos por aves (21%), répteis (14%) e mamíferos de tamanho médio (3%). A porcentagem de ocorrência (PO) sugere que a dieta concentra-se, principalmente, em pequenos roedores (30%) e aves (21%). Foi também registrada a predação sobre serpentes da família Viperidae. A amplitude de nicho alimentar padronizada (Bsta = 0,76) mostra uma dieta generalista, entretanto, os dados sugerem que o jaguarundi consome principalmente pequenos vertebrados (mamíferos, aves ou répteis), sobretudo, espécies terrestres.

Field methods for the study of ants in sugarcane plantations in Southeastern Brazil

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq)

Bird diversity and abundance in forest fragments and Eucalyptus plantations around an Atlantic forest reserve, Brazil

Little of Brazil's remaining Atlantic forest is protected, so it is important to assess how well the region's wildlife can persist in areas/habitats outside reserves. We studied bird diversity and abundance during 546 point counts in the Sooretama/Linhares reserve, 200 point counts in 31 forest fragments (10-150 h), and 50 point counts in < 30-year-old Eucalyptus plantations, within 7 km of the reserve. Only eight bird species were recorded in Eucalyptus, and this impoverishment, as compared to some Eucalyptus plantations elsewhere in Brazil may be a result of intensive clearance of understory vegetation. Species diversity in forest fragments was significantly lower than in the reserve. Twelve, mostly non-forest or edge species, were significantly commoner in the fragments, but nineteen species were frequent in the reserve but rare or absent in forest fragments. These included two Pyrrhura parakeets, a Brotogeris parakeet, a trogon Trogon, a jacamar Galbula, woodpeckers Piculus and Campephilus, Myrmotherula antwrens, and Hemithraupus and Tachyphonus tanagers. Bird species richness at points in forest fragments did not decline with fragment size, distance from the reserve, or forest quality. However, forest in fragments was more heavily degraded than forest within the reserve and poor forest quality may be the cause of declines in some species. Whilst protection of forest within reserves is a priority, management of forest fragments may aid conservation of some threatened species.

ANT (HYM, FORMICIDAE) MOSAIC STABILITY IN BAHIAN COCOA PLANTATIONS - IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGEMENT

Mapping and collection of ants in cocoa trees in a 1 ha plot in the south of Bahia, Brazil, revealed three dominant species of the ant mosaic: Wasmannia auropunctata, Ectatomma tuberculatum and Azteca chartifex spiriti. A. chartifex demonstrated a larger influence in the cocoa plantation due to its spatial and temporal (1 y) stability in the same cocoa trees, and its capacity for territorial expansion. The management of A. chartifex for controlling insect pests of cocoa is strongly recommended. Considerations of temporal permanence of mosaic dominant ants should be a necessary criteria for ant management in tropical tree crops.