The VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars: stellar parameters and rotational velocities in NGC 3293, NGC 4755 and NGC 6611

An analysis is presented of VLT-FLAMES spectroscopy for three Galactic clusters, NGC3293, NGC4755 and NGC6611. Non-LTE model atmosphere calculations have been used to estimate effective temperatures (from either the helium spectrum or the silicon ionization equilibrium) and gravities (from the hydrogen spectrum). Projected rotational velocities have been deduced from the helium spectrum (for fast and moderate rotators) or the metal line spectrum (for slow rotators). The origin of the low gravity estimates for apparently near main sequence objects is discussed and is related to the stellar rotational velocity. The atmospheric parameters have been used to estimate cluster distances (which are generally in good agreement with previous determinations) and these have been used to estimate stellar luminosities and evolutionary masses. The observed Hertzsprung-Russell diagrams are compared with theoretical predictions and some discrepancies including differences in the main sequence luminosities are discussed. Cluster ages have been deduced and evidence for non-coeval star formation is found for all three of the clusters. Projected rotational velocities for targets in the older clusters, NGC3293 and NGC4755, have been found to be systematically larger than those for the field, confirming recent results in other similar age clusters. The distribution of projected rotational velocities are consistent with a Gaussian distribution of intrinsic rotational velocities. For the relatively unevolved targets in the older clusters, NGC3293 and NGC4755, the peak of the velocity distribution would be 250 km s(-1) with a full-width-half-maximum of approximately 180 km s(-1). For NGC6611, the sample size is relatively small but implies a lower mean rotational velocity. This may be evidence for the spin-down effect due to angular momentum loss through stellar winds, although our results are consistent with those found for very young high mass stars. For all three clusters we deduce present day mass functions with Gamma-values in the range of -1.5 to -1.8, which are similar to other young stellar clusters in the Milky Way.

A survey of [ D2CO] /[ H2CO] and [ N2D^+] /[ N2H^+] ratios towards protostellar cores

Aims.We use observations and models of molecular D/H ratios to probe the physical conditions and chemical history of the gas and to differentiate between gas-phase and grain-surface chemical processing in star forming regions. Methods: As a follow up to previous observations of HDCO/H2CO and DCN/HCN ratios in a selection of low-mass protostellar cores, we have measured D2CO/H2CO and N2D^+/N2H+ ratios in these same sources. For comparison, we have also measured N2D^+/N2H+ ratios towards several starless cores and have searched for N2D+ and deuterated formaldehyde towards hot molecular cores (HMCs) associated with high mass star formation. We compare our results with predictions from detailed chemical models, and to other observations made in these sources. Results: Towards the starless cores and low-mass protostellar sources we have found very high N2D+ fractionation, which suggests that the bulk of the gas in these regions is cold and heavily depleted. The non-detections of N2D+ in the HMCs indicate higher temperatures. We did detect HDCO towards two of the HMCs, with abundances 1-3% of H2CO. These are the first detections of deuterated formaldehyde in high mass sources since Turner (1990) measured HDCO/H2CO and D2CO/H2CO towards the Orion Compact Ridge. Figures 1-5 are only available in electronic form at http://www.aanda.org

Galactic Edge Clouds I. Molecular Line Observations and Chemical Modelling of Edge Cloud 2

Edge Cloud 2 (EC2) is a molecular cloud, about 35 pc in size, with one of the largest galactocentric distances known to exist in the Milky Way. We present observations of a peak CO emission region in the cloud and use these to determine its physical characteristics. We calculate a gas temperature of 20 K and a density of n(H2)~10^4 cm-3. Based on our CO maps, we estimate the mass of EC2 at around 10^4 Msolar and continuum observations suggest a dust-to-gas mass ratio as low as 0.001. Chemical models have been developed to reproduce the abundances in EC2, and they indicate that heavy element abundances may be reduced by a factor of 5 relative to the solar neighborhood (similar to dwarf irregular galaxies and damped Lya systems), very low extinction (A_V <4 mag) due to a very low dust-to-gas mass ratio, an enhanced cosmic-ray ionization rate, and a higher UV field compared to local interstellar values. The reduced abundances may be attributed to the low level of star formation in this region and are probably also related to the continuing infall of primordial (or low-metallicity) halo gas since the Milky Way formed. Finally, we note that shocks from the old supernova remnant GSH 138-01-94 may have determined the morphology and dynamics of EC2.

The abundance of HNCO and its use as a diagnostic of environment

Aims. We aim to investigate the chemistry and gas phase abundance of HNCO and the variation of the HNCO/CS abundance ratio as a diagnostic of the physics and chemistry in regions of massive star formation. Methods. A numerical-chemical model has been developed which self-consistently follows the chemical evolution of a hot core. The model comprises of two distinct stages. The first stage follows the isothermal, modified free-fall collapse of a molecular dark cloud. This is immediately followed by an increase in temperature which represents the switch on of a central massive star and the subsequent evolution of the chemistry in a hot, dense gas cloud (the hot core). During the collapse phase, gas species are allowed to accrete on to grain surfaces where they can participate in further reactions. During the hot core phase surface species thermally desorb back in to the ambient gas and further chemical evolution takes place. For comparison, the chemical network was also used to model a simple dark cloud and photodissociation regions. Results. Our investigation reveals that HNCO is inefficiently formed when only gas-phase formation pathways are considered in the chemical network with reaction rates consistent with existing laboratory data. This is particularly true at low temperatures but also in regions with temperatures up to ~200 K. Using currently measured gas phase reaction rates, obtaining the observed HNCO abundances requires its formation on grain surfaces – similar to other “hot core” species such as CH3OH. However our model shows that the gas phase HNCO in hot cores is not a simple direct product of the evaporation of grain mantles. We also show that the HNCO/CS abundance ratio varies as a function of time in hot cores and can match the range of values observed. This ratio is not unambiguously related to the ambient UV field as been suggested – our results are inconsistent with the hypothesis of Martín et al. (2008, ApJ, 678, 245). In addition, our results show that this ratio is extremely sensitive to the initial sulphur abundance. We find that the ratio grows monotonically with time with an absolute value which scales approximately linearly with the S abundance at early times.

Discovery of Interstellar Anions in Cepheus and Auriga

We report the detection of microwave emission lines from the hydrocarbon anion C6H- and its parent neutral C6H in the star-forming region L1251A (in Cepheus), and the pre-stellar core L1512 (in Auriga). The carbon-chain-bearing species C4H, HC3N, HC5N, HC7N and C3S are also detected in large abundances. The observations of L1251A constitute the first detections of anions and long- chain polyynes and cyanopolyynes (with more than 5 carbon atoms) in the Cepheus Flare star- forming region, and the first detection of anions in the vicinity of a protostar outside of the Taurus molecular cloud complex, highlighting a wider importance for anions in the chemistry of star formation. Rotational excitation temperatures have been derived from the HC3N hyperfine structure lines, and are found to be 6.2 K for L1251A and 8.7 K for L1512. The anion-to-neutral ratios are 3.6% and 4.1%, respectively, which are within the range of values previously observed in the interstellar medium, and suggest a relative uniformity in the processes governing anion abundances in different dense interstellar clouds. This research contributes towards the growing body of evidence that carbon chain anions are relatively abundant in interstellar clouds throughout the Galaxy, but especially in the regions of relatively high density and high depletion surrounding pre-stellar cores and young, embedded protostars.

A Spitzer space telescope study of Sn 2002hh: An infrared echo from a Type IIP supernova

We present late-time ( 590 - 994 days) mid-IR photometry of the normal but highly reddened Type IIP supernova SN 2002hh. Bright, cool, slowly fading emission is detected from the direction of the supernova. Most of this flux appears not to be driven by the supernova event but instead probably originates in a cool, obscured star formation region or molecular cloud along the line of sight. We also show, however, that the declining component of the flux is consistent with an SN-powered IR echo from a dusty progenitor CSM. Mid-IR emission could also be coming from newly condensed dust and/or an ejecta/CSM impact, but their contributions are likely to be small. For the case of a CSM-IR echo, we infer a dust mass of as little as 0.036 M-. with a corresponding CSM mass of 3.6(0.01/ r(dg)) M-., where rdg is the dust-to-gas mass ratio. Such a CSM would have resulted from episodic mass loss whose rate declined significantly about 28,000 years ago. Alternatively, an IR echo from a surrounding, dense, dusty molecular cloud might also have been responsible for the fading component. Either way, this is the first time that an IR echo has been clearly identified in a Type IIP supernova. We find no evidence for or against the proposal that Type IIP supernovae produce large amounts of dust via grain condensation in the ejecta. However, within the CSM-IR echo scenario, the mass of dust derived implies that the progenitors of the most common of core-collapse supernovae may make an important contribution to the universal dust content.

SN 2009jf: a slow-evolving stripped-envelope core-collapse supernova

We present an extensive set of photometric and spectroscopic data for SN 2009jf, a nearby Type Ib supernova (SN), spanning from ˜20 d before B-band maximum to 1 yr after maximum. We show that SN 2009jf is a slowly evolving and energetic stripped-envelope SN and is likely from a massive progenitor (25-30 Msun). The large progenitor's mass allows us to explain the complete hydrogen plus helium stripping without invoking the presence of a binary companion. The SN occurred close to a young cluster, in a crowded environment with ongoing star formation. The spectroscopic similarity with the He-poor Type Ic SN 2007gr suggests a common progenitor for some SNe Ib and Ic. The nebular spectra of SN 2009jf are consistent with an asymmetric explosion, with an off-centre dense core. We also find evidence that He-rich Ib SNe have a rise time longer than other stripped-envelope SNe, however confirmation of this result and further observations are needed. This paper is based on observations with several telescopes, including NTT(184.D-1151), VLT-UT1(085.D-0750,386.D-0126), NOT, WHT, TNG, PROMPT, Ekar, Calar Alto and Liverpool Telescope.

Chemical evolution in the circumstellar structure of B5 IRS1

The B5 dark cloud has been identified as a site of low-mass star formation. We report a survey of a selection of the molecular species modelled by the B5 dynamical and chemical model of Charnley et al. at the positions of circumstellar HCN clumps in B5 IRS1. All of the key species observed yield either abundances or upper limits to abundances below both the standard and the predicted values, appearing to show evidence of depletion and/or destruction if the transitions observed are thermalized. Our results are not in good agreement with the model, and they bring into question the interpretation of the structure of B5 IRS1 proposed by Fuller et al. It was expected that HCN clump C might exhibit a higher excitation than HCN clump A, since it appeared to be located within the blueshifted molecular outflow. However, there is no significant difference observed between the two clumps, suggesting that the near-infrared and optical nebulosity is evidence of a reflection nebula rather than shocked material in the outflow. Finally, it is observed that our results are more consistent with gas-grain models than with those models excluding gas-grain interaction.

DENSE GAS IN NEARBY GALAXIES .9. A SURVEY FOR HNC

Ten detections and five tentative detections of hydrogen isocyanide (HNC) J=1-0 emission are reported from a survey including sixteen galaxies. Full maps are presented for the nuclear regions of NGC 253 and IC 342, partial maps for Maffei 2, M 82, and M 83. Toward IC 342, the HNC and HCO+ distributions differ from those observed in 12CO, 13CO, HCN, CS, and NH3. This is likely a consequence of the density structure. Relative HNC abundances are with 10(-10)-10(-9) much smaller than those measured in nearby dark clouds and appear to be slightly smaller than those in regions of massive star formation of the Galactic disk. This is consistent with the presence of dense warm gas or a frequent occurrence of shocks in the nuclear regions of the galaxies observed. As in prominent Galactic star forming regions, 3 mm HNC line emission tends to be weaker than the corresponding emission from HCN and HCO+. Toward Arp 220, however, the 3 mm HNC/HCN line intensity ratio is > 1. HNC/HCO+, HNC/CO, and HNC to 20 cm radio continuum luminosity ratios are also particularly large. A possible interpretation is the presence of cool quiescent gas outside the central region which contains the starburst. In the other ultraluminous galaxy observed, NGC 6240, X(HNC) 10 smaller than in Arp 220, demonstrating that the molecular composition in ultraluminous galaxies is far from being uniform.

PHOSPHORUS CHEMISTRY IN DENSE INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS

I have used recent laboratory studies on the reactions of the phosphorus hydride ions, PH(n)+ (n = 0-4) to construct a new model of phosphorus chemistry in interstellar clouds. I find that the non-detection of PN in cold, dark clouds in consistent with the chemical models only if the depletion of phosphorus in large, approximately 10(4) in TMC-1. Although the laboratory studies indicate that organo-phosphorus chains C(n)P can be formed, this large depletion precludes the detection of any phosphorus-bearing moleclues in cold clouds. However, in warm clouds associated with star formation, the depletion of phosphorus may be reduced. In this case one can reproduce the PN abundance toward Orion KL with a depletion factor of about 300. Interestingly, if the organo-phosphorus species are not destroyed by O atoms, I predict fractional abundances in Ori KL of between 10(-11) and 10(-10) for C(n)P (n = 2-4) and HCCP.

Core-collapse supernovae in low-metallicity environments and future all-sky transient surveys

Aims. Massive stars in low-metallicity environments may produce exotic explosions such as long-duration gamma-ray bursts and pair-instability supernovae when they die as core-collapse supernovae (CCSNe). Such events are predicted to be relatively common in the early Universe during the first episodes of star-formation. To understand these distant explosions it is vital to study nearby CCSNe arising in low-metallicity environments to determine if the explosions have different characteristics to those studied locally in high-metallicity galaxies. Many of the nearby supernova searches concentrate their efforts on high star-formation rate galaxies, hence biasing the discoveries to metal rich regimes. Here we determine the feasibility of searching for these CCSNe in metal-poor dwarf galaxies using various survey strategies.

The VLT-FLAMES survey of massive stars: wind properties and evolution of hot massive stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud

We have studied the optical spectra of a sample of 28 O- and early B-type stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 22 of which are associated with the young star forming region N11. Our observations sample the central associations of LH9 and LH10, and the surrounding regions. Stellar parameters are determined using an automated fitting method ( Mokiem et al. 2005), which combines the stellar atmosphere code fastwind ( Puls et al. 2005) with the genetic algorithm based optimisation routine PIKAIA ( Charbonneau 1995). We derive an age of 7.0 +/- 1.0 and 3.0 +/- 1.0 Myr for LH9 and LH10, respectively. The age difference and relative distance of the associations are consistent with a sequential star formation scenario in which stellar activity in LH9 triggered the formation of LH10. Our sample contains four stars of spectral type O2. From helium and hydrogen line fitting we find the hottest three of these stars to be similar to 49- 54 kK ( compared to similar to 45- 46 kK for O3 stars). Detailed determination of the helium mass fraction reveals that the masses of helium enriched dwarfs and giants derived in our spectroscopic analysis are systematically lower than those implied by non-rotating evolutionary tracks. We interpret this as evidence for efficient rotationally enhanced mixing leading to the surfacing of primary helium and to an increase of the stellar luminosity. This result is consistent with findings for SMC stars by Mokiem et al. ( 2006). For bright giants and supergiants no such mass discrepancy is found; these stars therefore appear to follow tracks of modestly or non-rotating objects. The set of programme stars was sufficiently large to establish the mass loss rates of OB stars in this Z similar to 1/2 Z(circle dot) environment sufficiently accurate to allow for a quantitative comparison with similar objects in the Galaxy and the SMC. The mass loss properties are found to be intermediate to massive stars in the Galaxy and SMC. Comparing the derived modified wind momenta D-mom as a function of luminosity with predictions for LMC metallicities by Vink et al. ( 2001) yields good agreement in the entire luminosity range that was investigated, i.e. 5.0

The chemical composition of two supergiants in the dwarf irregular galaxy WLM

The chemical composition of two stars in WLM has been determined from high-quality Ultraviolet-Visual Echelle Spectrograph (UVES) data obtained at the VLT-UT2. The model atmospheres analysis shows that they have the same metallicity, [Fe/H] = - 0.38 +/- 0.20 (+/- 0.29). Reliable magnesium abundances are determined from several lines of two ionization states in both stars resulting in [Mg/Fe] = - 0.24 +/- 0.16 (+/- 0.28). This result suggests that the [alpha(Mg)/Fe] ratio in WLM may be suppressed relative to solar abundances ( also supported by differential abundances relative to similar stars in NGC 6822 and the Small Magellanic Cloud [SMC]). The absolute Mg abundance, [Mg/H] = -0.62, is high relative to what is expected from the nebulae though, where two independent spectroscopic analyses of the H II regions in WLM yield [O/H] = - 0.89. Intriguingly, the oxygen abundance determined from the O I lambda6158 feature in one WLM star is [O/H] = - 0.21 +/- 0.10 (+/- 0.05), corresponding to 5 times higher than the nebular oxygen abundance. This is the first time that a significant difference between stellar and nebular oxygen abundances has been found, and currently, there is no simple explanation for this difference. The two stars are massive supergiants with distances that clearly place them in WLM. They are young ( less than or equal to 10 Myr) and should have a similar composition to the ISM. Additionally, differential abundances suggest that the O/Fe ratio in the WLM star is consistent with similar stars in NGC 6822 and the SMC, galaxies where the average stellar oxygen abundances are in excellent agreement with the nebular results. If the stellar abundances reflect the true composition of WLM, then this galaxy lies well above the metallicity-luminosity relationship for dwarf irregular galaxies. It also suggests that WLM is more chemically evolved than currently interpreted from its color-magnitude diagram. The similarities between the stars in WLM and NGC 6822 suggest that these two galaxies may have had similar star formation histories.

The host galaxy of the super-luminous SN 2010gx and limits on explosive nickel-56 production

Super-luminous supernovae have a tendency to occur in faint host galaxies which are likely to have low mass and low metallicity. While these extremely luminous explosions have been observed from z=0.1 to 1.55, the closest explosions allow more detailed investigations of their host galaxies. We present a detailed analysis of the host galaxy of SN 2010gx (z=0.23), one of the best studied super-luminous type Ic supernovae. The host is a dwarf galaxy (M_g=-17.42+/-0.17) with a high specific star formation rate. It has a remarkably low metallicity of 12+log(O/H)=7.5+/-0.1 dex as determined from the detection of the [OIII] 4363 Angs line. This is the first reliable metallicity determination of a super-luminous stripped-envelope supernova host. We collected deep multi-epoch imaging with Gemini + GMOS between 240-560 days after explosion to search for any sign of radioactive nickel-56, which might provide further insights on the explosion mechanism and the progenitor's nature. We reach griz magnitudes of m_AB~26, but do not detect SN 2010gx at these epochs. The limit implies that any nickel-56 production was similar to or below that of SN 1998bw (a luminous type Ic SN that produced around 0.4 M_sun of nickel-56). The low volumetric rates of these supernovae (~10^-4 of the core-collapse population) could be qualitatively matched if the explosion mechanism requires a combination of low-metallicity (below 0.2 Z_sun), high progenitor mass (>60 M_sun) and high rotation rate (fastest 10% of rotators).