Small-scale Fisheries and the Global Economy: Understanding Common-pool Resource Governance in the Context of Market Pressures, Neoliberal Policies, and Transnational Institutions

The purpose of this dissertation is to contribute to a better understanding of how global seafood trade interacts with the governance of small-scale fisheries (SSFs). As global seafood trade expands, SSFs have the potential to experience significant economic, social, and political benefits from participation in export markets. At the same time, market connections that place increasing pressures on resources pose risks to both the ecological and social integrity of SSFs. This dissertation seeks to explore the factors that mediate between the potential benefits and risks of global seafood markets for SSFs, with the goal of developing hypotheses regarding these relationships.

The empirical investigation consists of a series of case studies from the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico. This is a particularly rich context in which to study global market connections with SSFs because the SSFs in this region engage in a variety of market-oriented harvests, most notably for octopus, groupers and snappers, lobster, and sea cucumber. Variation in market forms and the institutional diversity of local-level governance arrangements allows the dissertation to explore a number of examples.

The analysis is guided primarily by common-pool resource (CPR) theory because of the insights it provides regarding the conditions that facilitate collective action and the factors that promote long-lasting resource governance arrangements. Theory from institutional economics and political ecology contribute to the elaboration of a multi-faceted conceptualization of markets for CPR theory, with the aim of facilitating the identification of mechanisms through which markets and CPR governance actually interact. This dissertation conceptualizes markets as sets of institutions that structure the exchange of property rights over fisheries resources, affect the material incentives to harvest resources, and transmit ideas and values about fisheries resources and governance.

The case studies explore four different mechanisms through which markets potentially influence resource governance: 1) Markets can contribute to costly resource governance activities by offsetting costs through profits, 2) markets can undermine resource governance by generating incentives for noncompliance and lead to overharvesting resources, 3) markets can increase the costs of resource governance, for example by augmenting monitoring and enforcement burdens, and 4) markets can alter values and norms underpinning resource governance by transmitting ideas between local resource users and a variety of market actors.

Data collected using participant observation, survey, informal and structured interviews contributed to the elaboration of the following hypotheses relevant to interactions between global seafood trade and SSFs governance. 1) Roll-back neoliberalization of fisheries policies has undermined cooperatives’ ability to achieve financial success through engagement with markets and thus their potential role as key actors in resource governance (chapter two). 2) Different relations of production influence whether local governance institutions will erode or strengthen when faced with market pressures. In particular, relations of production in which fishers own their own means of production and share the collective costs of governance are more likely to strengthen resource governance while relations of production in which a single entrepreneur controls capital and access to the fishery are more likely to contribute to the erosion of resource governance institutions in the face of market pressures (chapter three). 3) By serving as a new discursive framework within which to conceive of and talk about fisheries resources, markets can influence norms and values that shape and constitute governance arrangements.

In sum, the dissertation demonstrates that global seafood trade manifests in a diversity of local forms and effects. Whether SSFs moderate risks and take advantage of benefits depends on a variety of factors, and resource users themselves have the potential to influence the outcomes of seafood market connections through local forms of collective action.

Genetic differentiation among Parastichopus regalis populations in the Western Mediterranean Sea: potential effects from its fishery and current connectivity

Parastichopus regalis (Cuvier, 1817) is the most expensive seafood product on the Catalonian market (NE Spain), with prices at approximately 130 €/Kg (fresh weight). Despite its ecological and economic importance, biological and genetic information on this sea cucumber species is scarce. Here, we provide both the first insight on the genetic structure of P. regalis using sequences of cytochrome oxidase I (COI) and 16S genes and a morphological description of its population. Individual sea cucumbers were collected in six locations along the Spanish Mediterranean coast, including an area under fishery pressure (Catalonia). We found high haplotype diversity and low nucleotide diversity for both genes, with higher levels of genetic diversity observed in the COI gene. The population pairwise fixation index (FST), AMOVA and correspondence analysis (CA) based on the COI gene revealed significant genetic differentiation among some locations. However, further analysis using nuclear markers (e.g., microsatellites) is necessary to corroborate these results. Moreover, the genetic and morphological data may indicate fishery effects on the Catalonian population with a decrease in the size and weight averages and lower genetic diversity compared with locations that lack fishery pressure. For the appropriate management of this species, we suggest the following: 1) accurately assessing the stock status along the Spanish coasts; 2) studying the reproductive cycle of this target species and the establishment of a closed fishery season according to the reproductive cycle; and 3) establishing protected areas (i.e., not take zones) to conserve healthy populations and favour recruitment in the nearby areas.

Aquaculture Asia, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp.1-58, January-March 2003

*Table of Contents* Sustainable Aquaculture Fertilization, soil and water quality management in small-scale ponds part II:Soil and water quality management S. Adhikari Fisheries and aquaculture activities in Nepal Tek Gurung Peter Edwards writes on rural aquaculture: A knowledge-base for rural aquaculture Farmers as Scientists: Commercialization of giant freshwater prawn culture in India M.C. Nandeesha Aquaculture in reservoir fed canal based irrigation systems of India – a boon for fish production K.M. Rajesh, Mridula R. Mendon, K. N. Prabhudeva and P. Arun Padiyar Research and Farming Techniques Production and grow-out of the Black-lip pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera Idris Lane Breeding of carps using a low-cost, small-scale hatchery in Assam, India: A farmer proven technology S.K. Das Genes and Fish: Hybridisation – more trouble than its worth? Graham Mair Breeding and culture of the sea cucumber Holothuria scabra in Vietnam R. Pitt and N. D. Q. Duy The potential use of palm kernel meal in aquaculture feeds Wing-Keong Ng Using a Simple GIS model to assess development patterns of small-scale rural aquaculture in the wider environment Simon R. Bush Aquaculture fundamentals: Getting the most out of your feed Simon Wilkinson Marine finfish section Status of marine finfish aquaculture in Myanmar U Khin Kolay Regional training course on grouper hatchery production Aquatic Animal Health Advice on aquatic animal health care: Problems in Penaeus monodon culture in low salinity areas Pornlerd Chanratchakool

News from Academy Bay

Sea Cucumber Fishing Boat Captured. Park Warden Wounded by Bullet in Confrontation Between Illegal Sea Cucumber Fishermen and Patrol Personnel of the Galápagos National Park. Peaceful Demonstration to Reject Violence in Galápagos. Conflict in the Galápagos Biological Reserve for Marine Resources, a Statement by the President of the Charles Darwin Foundation. Rediscovery of an "Extinct" Endemic Plant, the Floreana Flax Linum cratericola. The Arrival of Marek's Disease to Galápagos. Mortality of Giant Tortoises at El Chato, Isla Santa Cruz. The Darwin Station Begins a Monthly Program on Local Television. Account of a Historical Crossing of Isthmus Perry.

Palatability of tissues in Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt) from central west coast of India

The palatability of various organs (body wall, cuvierian gland, viscera, longitudinal muscle bands and gonads) of sea cucumber Holothuria leucospilota (Brandt) was studied by feeding experiments, performed on a freshwater fish Sarotherodon mossambicus and a marine fish Therapon jarbua. The result shows that the food pellets of the body wall were less toxic and more palatable than the gonads, viscera and cuvierian gland (p<0.001).

De-scummer for beche-de-mer processing

An improved method for processing sea cucumber (beche-de-mer) is described. Details of a machine named de-scummer are presented. The traditional method for preparation is discussed, and the new method outlined; this involves burying boiled sea cucumber in clean sand contained in cement pits for periods of 6-8 h. The animals are then transferred to the de-scummer for mechanical treatment and are boiled again. After this they are dried.

Folk medicine and horticulture

The article discusses the uses of marine organisms in folk medicine and in horticulture in the Philippines. Commonly used marine organisms are the different varieties of seaweeds, sea urchin, sea cucumber, turtle, crocodile and fishes such as grouper and rabbitfish.

Molecular characterizations of oxytetracycline resistant bacteria and their resistance genes from mariculture waters of China

Oxytetracycline-resistant bacteria were isolated from a mariculture farm in China, and accounted for 32.23% and 5.63% of the total culturable microbes of the sea cucumber and the sea urchin rearing waters respectively. Marine vibrios, especially strains related to Vibrio splendidus or V. tasmaniensis, were the most abundant resistant isolates. For oxytetracycline resistance, tet(A), tet(B) and tet(D) genes were detected in both sea cucumber and sea urchin rearing ponds. The dominant resistance type for V. tasmaniensis-like strains was the combination of both tet(A) and tet(B) genes, while the major resistance type for V. splendidus-like strains was a single tet(D) gene. Most of the sea cucumber tet-positive isolates harbored a chloramphenicol-resistance gene, either cat IV or cat II, while only a few sea urchin tet-positive isolates harbored a cat gene, actually cat IV. The coexistence of tet and cat genes in the strains isolated from the mariculture farm studied was helpful in explaining some of the multi-resistance mechanisms. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

刺参Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka)耐高温品系选育的基础研究

刺参是目前支撑我国海水增养殖业高效、稳定、持续发展的重要物种之一，但该产业面临着种质匮乏、病害严重、养殖环境局部恶化和产品品质难以保证等诸多问题。本文围绕刺参增养殖过程中的种质苗种问题，以培育耐高温品系为研究目标，在评价我国沿海不同地理群体刺参及其子一代在热刺激条件下HSP70基因mRNA表达差异的基础上，以低纬度地理群体为亲本，经温度刺激后比较了幼体及幼参的生长及HSP70 mRNA表达差异，获得了性状优良的耐高温群体。主要研究结果如下： 1、研究了我国沿海刺参不同地理群体在热激后HSP70基因mRNA的表达差异，比较了在不同温度下不同地理群体幼参的生长特性。青岛、日照和养殖等低纬度群体成参HSP70基因mRNA表达变化较大连、长岛等高纬度群体明显；热激后低纬度群体幼参HSP70基因mRNA表达量较高纬度群体高；高温条件下，高纬度群体子一代成活率低生长。温度升高对高纬度群体生长的影响较大。 2、利用荧光实时定量PCR检测了HSP70基因在不同组织、不同温度、不同时间mRNA水平的表达差异。刺参的各组织都有HSP70的mRNA表达，且对热刺激都有应答。自然水温12℃时，在＋12℃温度刺激时刺参的呼吸树中的HSP70 mRNA水平较高；刺参成参、幼参呼吸树中HSP70基因的mRNA水平在热激后6-12h达到最高；低温刺激后HSP70 mRNA下调表达。 3、分别从受精卵和初耳幼体开始在不同温度下进行幼体培育， 27℃以上温度培育的刺参幼体，其生长和成活率显著低于24℃以下温度培育的幼体；不同起始刺激阶段和不同温度都是显著影响因子。从初耳幼体进行高温培育，幼体的变态受到明显影响，26℃以上温度培育幼体的变态率显著低于24℃以下培育温度。 4、以日照刺参为亲本，在26℃培育温度下获得了耐高温群体幼参，并从生长、HSP70mRNA水平的表达差异与常温培育的群体（普通群体）进行了比较。耐高温群体幼参在较高温度下成活率和HSP70mRNA表达水平明显高于普通群体，而二者在特定生长率随温度变化上没有差异。 5、在浙江苍南进行了选择群体耐高温能力和生长验证实验。耐温群体的温度耐受能力提高了0.7℃，进入夏眠时间延后15d左右。耐温刺参群体的特定生长率和成活率在3月温度回升后远高于对照组。

刺参遗传连锁图谱构建及卵母细胞成熟过程研究

第一部分 刺参遗传连锁图谱的构建 利用AFLP和微卫星标记以一个远缘地理杂交家系为作图群体，以拟测交理论为作图策略，构建了刺参Apostichopus japonicus的雌性和雄性遗传连锁图谱。利用62对AFLP引物组合，对亲本和93个个体进行了分离分析，共得到3572个标记，其中具有多态性的标记为点数为1133个，多态性比例为31.5%。平均每个引物对产生18.3个多态片段。1133个多态性位点中，294个标记在父母本中都出现并在后代中分离，839个标记在父本或母本中出现并在子代分离，其中母本443(52.8%)个分离标记，父本396(47.2%)个分离标记。卡方检验显示，556个标记符合孟德尔1:1分离。筛选微卫星标记中30个在家系中具有作图信息，其中19个可用于母本作图，19个可用于父本作图。 利用Mapmaker 3.0/EXP软件对分离标记进行连锁分析。358个分子标记用于雌性遗传连锁分析，其中包括19个微卫星标记，199个AFLP标记和11个微卫星标记定位在雌性框架图谱中。雌性框架图谱共有25个连锁群，总长度为3148.3 cM。标记之间最大间隔为37.5 cM，平均间隔为17.0 cM，连锁群的分子标记数最大为21个最小为4个。用于雄性连锁分析的分子标记共有332个，其中包含19个微卫星标记。207个标记定位于23个连锁群上，其中AFLP标记数为196个，微卫星标记数为11个。23个连锁群总长度为3059.8 cM，标记间最大间隔38.6 cM，平均间隔16.6 cM。每个连锁群的长度范围在40 cM到271.4 cM之间，标记数在18到4个之间，包括二、三连体在内的雄性连锁图谱共覆盖3227 cM。雌雄基因组的预测长度分别为4053.7 cM和3816.3 cM，因此，所构建的雌雄连锁图谱覆盖率分别为84.0%和84.5%。通过共有微卫星标记，有3个连锁群在两个图谱中对应。分子标记在两个图谱中呈均匀分布，没有成簇现象。 分子标记筛选、遗传图谱的构建为刺参分子标记辅助选择育种，经济性状QTL定位和比较基因作图打下基础，并且最终将促进中国刺参遗传改良和新品种的培育工作。 第二部分 卵母细胞成熟过程研究 对刺参卵母细胞的体外诱导成熟方法进行探索，并且通过透射电子显微镜、扫描电子显微镜和激光共聚焦显微镜结合超薄切片技术及间接免疫荧光染色技术研究卵母细胞成熟的生物学过程。 分别利用在海参中有诱导作用的海星神经提取液和二硫苏糖醇(DTT)对从成熟卵巢解剖出的刺参卵母细胞进行诱导成熟试验，结果显示，刺参的卵母细胞在海水中不会发生自发成熟，海星神经提取液以及神经提取液加滤泡悬浮液对卵母细胞没有诱导成熟的作用，而二硫苏糖醇处理可以诱导卵母细胞生发泡破裂，当DTT溶液的浓度处于10-1 mol/L到10-3 mol/L之间时，对刺参卵母细胞的促熟作用较为明显，在10-2 mol/L左右时，卵母细胞的诱导成熟率可以达到90%以上。未成熟的卵母细胞处于第一次减数分裂前期，不具备受精能力。经DTT诱导后，生发泡发生移动并破裂，染色体排列到赤道板上，然后第一、二极体先后排出，诱导成熟的卵母细胞排出极体的时间与自然受精的卵子一致。在卵母细胞成熟过程中有受精膜举起的现象，说明精子入卵不是受精膜举起的必要条件。卵母细胞只有在生发泡破裂之后才具有受精能力，从生发泡破裂到第二极体排出前的整个减数分裂过程中，卵母细胞都可以受精，但是只有在第一极体排出前受精的卵母细胞才能发生卵裂。人工促熟的卵母细胞受精后，形成的胚胎似乎并不能正常发育，试验过程中最多只得到了8细胞期的胚胎，之后细胞便产生畸形并停止分裂，最终裂解消失。 利用DTT诱导刺参卵母细胞成熟，综合运用光镜、电子显微镜及激光共聚焦技术观察卵母细胞成熟过程，分析了卵母细胞表面动物极突起在卵母细胞脱滤泡中的作用，以及卵母细胞动物极突起和微管组织在生发泡移动过程中所起的作用。卵母细胞通过动物极突起连接到滤泡上，在脱滤泡作用开始时，卵母细胞动物极突起刺入并穿过滤泡膜，使得滤泡膜表面形成一个缺口，然后整个卵母细胞开始从缺口处挤出。脱滤泡的作用力来源有两种：胶膜层的水合作用以及滤泡的收缩。通过激光共聚焦显微镜观察，未成熟的卵母细胞中存在5种类型的微管，并且有两个微管组织中心锚定在卵母细胞突起下方。减数分裂重新启动时，生发泡沿微管向动物极移动，至细胞膜下时破裂。微管解聚对照实验证明驱动生发泡移动的细胞结构为微管束。生发泡破裂后，两个微管组织中心组织形成减数分裂纺锤体，然后第一极体以“收缩-排出”的独特方式排出。 本研究填补了刺参繁殖生物学研究中的缺失环节，为刺参人工繁育技术提供理论基础和指导。

刺参生态增养殖原理与关键技术

针对目前刺参养殖业中面临的问题，系统研究了刺参的基础生物学、组织学，生理生态学和呼吸生理学特征，评估了刺参的养殖容量，优化了养殖模式，以嵊泗列岛为例，系统研究了刺参南移后的存活和生长等特征。研究结果如下： 1．刺参体腔液细胞存在于刺参的体腔中，体腔液细胞行使免疫防御、营养贮存和运输的功能。根据形态和功能上的特征可分为小淋巴细胞、桑葚细胞、吞噬细胞、结晶细胞、纺缍细胞和振动细胞。体腔液细胞的形态和结构与其功能密切相关。不同特征的细胞可能是同一类型体腔液细胞的不同发育阶段。体腔液细胞平均密度为(3.79 ± 0.65)×106 cells /ml-1. 刺参的血淋巴细胞可分为小淋巴细胞、桑葚细胞、吞噬细胞和结晶细胞。刺参体腔液细胞可分为小淋巴细胞、桑葚细胞、吞噬细胞、结晶细胞、纺锤细胞和振动细胞。刺参吞噬细胞的吞噬率与温度呈正相关，并呈现出强烈的凝集现象。 2．刺参的血管、呼吸树、肌细胞和体腔内皮细胞的超微结构复杂，与其功能密切相关。夏眠前后刺参消化道明显萎缩，上皮细胞重吸收现象显著，结果显示组织结构的改变与外界环境相适应。刺参夏眠时体腔液pH和PO2升高，PCO2降低。连续取样对刺参体腔液血气指标没有显著性影响。刺参体腔液的%Extrw和%EwO2与体重呈负相关。 3．刺参的扰动导致底质中有机物含量、TOC、TN、叶绿素和细菌含量降低，刺参粪便中有机物含量高于周围底质，刺参对摄食底质具有选择性。刺参的扰动能增强底质的稳定性，与对照组相比，硫化物含量和氧化还原电位降低。 4．根据水体理化指标变化和自然沉积有机物的供饵力，结合不同温度下大规格刺参对自然生物沉积物的吸收率，计算刺参的养殖容量。浅海典型水域刺参的养殖容量约为109.40 g y-1m-2。 5．前三岛近岛水域底质有机物含量高于离岸深水水域，且粒度较离岸水域细，大多在0.20 mm以下。刺参的放流浓度和参礁的放置深度应选择在5-12m。刺参的放养规格宜为经人工越冬后体长在8-10厘米的参苗，体重超过30克。 6．研究了三种规格的刺参笼养殖存活和生长特征，初步建立了刺参筏式笼养技术。投喂海带，存活率达到83%以上。密度对刺参的生长有着显著的影响，随着实验的进行，放养密度增加，刺参的体重减小。4月后，随着温度的升高和海况的改变，刺参的生长率下降。刺参南移养殖模式的适宜放养密度应控制在3-5头，放养规格应在40g以上，经过5-6个月的生长能达到100g左右。

藻体对水环境中N、P及重金属Cu2+、Pb2+、Cd2+、Cr6+的吸附特征研究

随着全球生态环境的恶化，各国日益重视对水体中各种污染物的治理。利用藻类的吸收、富集和降解作用，可以去除污水中的营养物质、重金属离子和有机污染物，与其他物理、化学及工程的方法相比，该技术具有以下优点：成本低、能耗小、治理效果较好，对环境污染小，有利于资源化，有利于整体生态环境的改善，是治理水质污染的新途径。 本文利用几种大型海藻对富营养化海水进行处理，结果发现孔石莼、刚毛藻均有很强的吸收N、P的能力，吸收能力依次为褶曲刚毛藻>束生刚毛藻>孔石莼。水体中褶曲刚毛藻3 g/L含量，在3～5小时之内，可把中等以上富营养化海水中的N、P降低至一类海水水平。利用刚毛藻处理富营养化地下海水和养殖废水，进行海参和大菱鲆养殖试验，探索藻类净化水质和废水循环利用的新模式，使水体保持较低的营养盐状态，减轻养殖废水对环境的影响，实现了海水养殖业与环境的可持续发展。 刚毛藻在我国近海滩涂分布广泛，利用它来处理富营养化水体，并和水产养殖业相结合，既净化水体，使养殖废水能循环利用，满足水产养殖的需求，又改善水产业生态环境。同时，将回收藻体生产优质饲料、食品和药物等，实现藻类资源的高值利用。刚毛藻营养丰富，用其替代鼠尾藻作海参饲料，资源丰富，成本低，效果好，是一种值得加以开发利用的宝贵资源，具有广泛的应用前景。 生物吸附法是一种经济有效的移除废水中有害重金属离子的方法。由于藻类细胞壁中的多聚糖可提供吸附重金属的位点，廉价而蕴藏丰富的海藻对多种重金属表现出很强的吸附能力。所以本文通过分批实验，研究了非活体刚毛藻对水体中重金属Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+的吸附影响因子、吸附热力学、吸附动力学及吸附机理，得到了平衡等温线及动力学数据。吸附过程的最佳pH值为5.0，吸附量随温度的升高而增加，水体中常见的Na+、K+、Ca2+、Mg2+阳离子及Cl-、NO3-、SO42-、C2O42-等阴离子的存在对吸附的影响并不显著。EDTA存在时，吸附百分率大大降低。吸附等温线符合Langmuir和Freundlich方程。刚毛藻对重金属Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+的吸附容量很高，25℃时，对Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+的最大吸附容量分别为1.61 mmol/g、0.96 mmol/g和0.98 mmol/g，且吸附过程为吸热反应。刚毛藻对重金属Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+的吸附过程为化学吸附，在吸附过程中藻体表面的官能团可能与金属离子发生了螯合作用。吸附动力学过程符合pseudo-二级动力学模型，在初始的30min内，吸附速率很快，随后速率逐渐降低。解吸试验表明，用EDTA可以对重金属进行回收，刚毛藻可以循环利用。实验结果表明刚毛藻是一种高效、经济实用的生物吸附材料，可用来吸附回收水体中的重金属Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+等。 通过非活体刚毛藻对重金属Cr6+的吸附影响因子、吸附动力学、吸附机理的研究发现，刚毛藻对Cr6+具有很强的还原能力，对电镀废水中的Cr6+的还原去除提供了非常好的方法。吸附过程的最佳pH值为2～3，实际电镀废水通常在此pH范围，因此处理实际废水时，首先在原酸性条件下，对Cr6+进行还原去除，然后调废水pH至5.0，继续进行吸附，去除其他二价离子及被还原的三价Cr离子，实现了利用同一材料还原Cr6+为Cr3+，并将Cr3+和其他重金属离子同时去除。通过对机理的讨论，认为刚毛藻对Cr6+的生物吸附过程不是一个简单的“离子交换过程”，而是一个“吸附还原过程”。在海藻量足够的前提下，只要时间足够长，Cr6+可被彻底还原去除。 利用工业废弃物褐藻渣，对水体中重金属离子Cu2+、Pb2+、Cd2+及Cr6+的生物吸附特性分别进行了讨论，结果表明褐藻渣对重金属离子的吸附特性与刚毛藻一致，吸附等温线符合Langmuir和Freundlich方程，在25℃时，pH为5.0时，由Langmuir方程求出褐藻渣对Cu2+、Pb2+和Cd2+的最大吸附容量分别为4.20 mmol/g、3.13 mmol/g和2.97 mmol/g。褐藻渣对低、高浓度的重金属Cr6+都具有很强的吸附能力，且移除效果比较彻底。实际应用结果表明，褐藻渣是一种高效、经济实用的生物吸附材料，可用来吸附回收水体中的重金属离子，具有广泛的应用前景。

Morphological and ultrastructural characterization of the coelomocytes in Apostichopus japonicus

The coelomocytes suspended in the coelomic fluid and occurring in the coelomic epithelial layer of the sea cucumber Apostichopus japonicus (Selenka) (Holothuroidea: Aspidochirota: Stichopodidae) function as mediators of the immune system, trephocytic cells and nutrient transport cells. Types of coelomocytes are characterized based on their morphological and ultrastructural features. Flow cytometry plus light and electron microscopic analyses were conducted in order to characterize the coelomocytes of A. japonicus. Six types of coelomocytes were identified: lymphocytes, morula cells, amoebocytes, crystal cells, fusiform cells and vibratile cells. Within these major categories, several distinctive cell types occurred that might represent developmental stages. The mean +/- SD coelomocyte concentration in the individuals (body length: 10 to 15 cm; weight: 100 to 150 g) was (3.79 +/- 0.65) X 10(6) cells ml(-1). The coelomic fluid contained mainly hyalinocytes (76.69%) and granulocytes (23.31 %).