Factors associated with the occurrence of Triatoma sordida (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) in rural localities of Central-West Brazil

This study estimates the factors of artificial environments (houses and peridomestic areas) associated with Triatoma sordida occurrence. Manual searches for triatomines were performed in 136 domiciliary units (DUs) in two rural localities of Central-West Brazil. For each DU, 32 structural, 23 biotic and 28 management variables were obtained. Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed in order to identify statistically significant variables associated with occurrence of T. sordida in the study areas. A total of 1,057 specimens (99% in peridomiciles, mainly chicken coops) of T. sordida were collected from 63 DUs (infestation: 47%; density: ~8 specimens/DU; crowding: ~17 specimens/infested DU; colonisation: 81%). Only six (0.6%) out of 945 specimens examined were infected with Trypanosoma cruzi. The final adjusted logistic regression model indicated that the probability of T. sordida occurrence was higher in DU with wooden chicken coops, presence of > 30 animals in wooden corrals, presence of wood piles and presence of food storeroom. The results show the persistence of T. sordida in peridomestic habitats in rural localities of Central-West Brazil. However, the observed low intradomestic colonisation and minimal triatomine infection rates indicate that T. sordida has low potential to sustain high rates of T. cruzi transmission to residents of these localities.

Pastoral conflict and resource management in Ethiopia's Somali region

RESUME L'objectif de cette thèse est d'approfondir la compréhension de la transformation des conflits liés à l'utilisation et la répartition des ressources foncières, de l'eau ainsi que des ressources politiques en région aride ou semi-aride. Cette thèse se concentre en particulier sur la façon dont les acteurs et les institutions résolvent les conflits dans un espace dominé par un mode de vie pastoral au sein des pays de la Corne de l'Afrique. Celle-ci réunit des zones périphériques mal contrôlée et caractérisée par une faible administration publique qui coexiste avec des instances coutumières et d'autres autorités. Le cas de la région Somali d'Ethiopie (ou Ogaden) nous démontre que les disputes et les pratiques de gestion des conflits existantes sont encastrées dans les normes, les politiques et les relations de pouvoir locales. Par conséquent, ce travail réfute le déterminisme causal de la littérature des conflits dits environnementaux en soulignant l'existence d'une vaste palette de stratégies de résolution des conflits. Il démontre empiriquement la capacité des éleveurs, des paysans et d'autres utilisateurs de ressources en propriété commune («common- pool resources », CPRs) à coopérer plutôt qu'à se disputer. De la même façon, la préférence idéologique de la plupart des études sur les CPRS pour des groupes d'utilisateurs homogènes et des systèmes de ressources d'utilisation simple est remise en question. En effet, l'existence de multiples ressources naturelles et politiques dans la région Somali d'Ethiopie justifie cette remise en cause. En soulignant l'économie politique dans laquelle se situent les conflits pastoraux et leur gestion cette thèse critique l'approche dépolitisée sur l'utilisation des ressources en propriété commune ainsi que les perspectives technocratiques sur les processus de construction des institutions. Les résultats de recherche marquent le rôle central et souvent inattendu de l'état dans la formation des conflits et la gestion des ressources dans sa périphérie pastorale. Avec |'introduction du fédéralisme ethnique éthiopien et la décentralisation administrative, la construction de l'état à pris une tournure nouvelle dans la région Somali depuis |991 - la période analysée dans cette étude. Ce processus fut accompagné de trois dynamiques parallèles (1) L'expansion des ressources étatiques dans les zones rurales les plus reculées, (2) la politisation des liens de parenté et (3) la redéfinition de la relation entre l'homme et son environnement naturel. En ce qui concerne l'atténuation des conflits, la thèse révèle que le rôle de l'état est spatialement différentié, que l'incorporation des autorités coutumières dans les gouvernements locaux est politiquement ambiguë, et que l'appui sur les lois coutumières ne « gèle » pas forcement les traditions. Les institutions mixtes qui allient règles coutumières et bureaucratiques sont souvent efficaces dans la gestion et la résolution des conflits liés aux ressources en milieu rural, mais pas dans la prévention et la transformation de ces conflits sur le long terme. En ce qui concerne la gestion des ressources, l'étude souligne le fait que les politiques publiques institutionnelles qui ignorent les variations saisonnières de l'utilisation des ressources, la multiplicité des revendications par les utilisateurs des ressources et les droits de propriété non exclusif ne font qu'aggraver des tensions entre divers groupes plutôt que de les atténuer. C'est précisèrent le cas de la décentralisation selon la logique « ethnique » de l'Ethiopie et d'autres politiques publiques sectorielles dont le but est de promouvoir la sédentarisation en incitant les groupes pastoraux à réclamer et occuper les territoires de manière permanente. En conclusion, cette thèse insiste sur (1) l'importance du renforcement du système de régulation au sein du régime institutionnel de ressources pastorales, (2) l'élaboration de nouvelles normes qui produisent des arrangements fonciers reconnus à la fois par les communautés et l'état, (3) la conception de politique publiques qui prennent en compte le périmètre des écosystèmes en place plutôt que des entités ethniques ou politiques et (4) le besoin d'un processus de démocratisation des projets de développement et de la représentation politique en périphéries semi-aride. L'étude est composée des chapitres suivants. Le chapitre 1 introduit les éléments clés des systèmes d'élevage dans la Corne de l'Afrique et les transitions économiques, écologiques et politiques dans lesquelles se situe le pastoralisme nomade. Quelques thèmes récurrents sont ici résumés dont le déclin des économies de cheptel, l'érosion de la gestion des terres arides et l'expansion de l'insécurité physique. Le chapitre 2 dissèque de manière critique le concept de conflit environnemental et les théories de la propriété commune en tant qu'explications théoriques des conflits dits pastoraux. Tandis que le premier décrit la violence comme une réaction à la raréfaction des ressources naturelles due aux pressions démographiques et au changement climatique, les secondes considèrent les confits comme l'expression d'un échec institutionnel de droits de propriété insuffisamment définis. Ce chapitre expose les défauts de ces deux explications et propose une approche alternative qui tient compte des relations de pouvoir, des institutions de gestion des conflits et des ressources naturelles, et de l'écologie non-équilibrée des régions arides. Le chapitre 3 élabore un cadre conceptuel qui rassemble des perspectives empruntées à la littérature portant sur la gestion des ressources naturelles, les techniques de médiation des conflits, les nouvelles théories « new range ecology » et les régimes institutionnels de ressources naturelles. Trois hypothèses décrivent les conditions requises pour prévenir, résoudre ou transformer les conflits liés à l'utilisation multiple des ressources dans les zones pastorales. Elles concernent (1) l'inclusion de partis tiers dans les processus de gestion de confits, (2) l'intégration de règles bureaucratiques et coutumières dans la gestion des ressources et des conflits et (3) le régime institutionnel de ressources naturelles qui concilie des revendications multiples aux ressources CPRs de manière flexible et inclusive. Le chapitre 4 présente les méthodes et la philosophie de recherche qui sous-tendent l'argumentation et l'analyse de la thèse. Il détaille l'opérationnalisation du cadre conceptuel et la sélection des études de cas, le processus de collecte des données et se penche sur les expériences de recherches de terrain de l'auteur. Le chapitre 5 décrit les conflits fonciers dans le district de Harshin où une expansion incontrôlée de clôtures des pâturages a encouragé la prolifération de conflits violents parmi les éleveurs Isaaq depuis la fin des années 1980. L'hétérogénéisation de l'utilisation des ressources, la multiplication des règles de gestion et l'incapacité des anciens à imposer un retour à la propriété commune des pâturages sont les points centraux de cette étude de cas. Le chapitre 6 passe en revue la compétition féroce autour de l'eau le long de la berge très peuplée et fertile du Wabi Shabelle dans le district de K'elafo. L'étude de cas reflète les interactions généalogiques complexes entre les groupes "nobles" et les « communs », la dépendance des cultivateurs Rer Barre du capital et de la technologie, pour les pompes à eaux par exemple, et l'importance continue des pratiques coutumières de gestion de l'agriculture. Le chapitre 7 démontre les rivalités autour du gâteau fiscal dans la capitale de la région Somali, Jijiga, où les partis politiques, les anciens claniques et les technocrates manoeuvrent pour le partage du pouvoir et des positions au sein de l'administration régionale. L'étude de cas rend compte de l'usage politisé du budget public, de l'expansion des ressources étatiques dans les zones rurales à travers la décentralisation, et de l'importance des agents intermédiaires entre les niveaux fédéral, régional et local dans l'allocation des ressources. Le chapitre 8 analyse les rôles et contributions respectifs des anciens et des acteurs étatiques dans la gestion de conflits violents entre les différents groupes dans la région Somali. En révélant les points forts et faibles des processus de paix basés sur les compensations de sang, ce chapitre propose une appréciation nuancée de la proposition (1) concernant l'inclusion de partis tiers dans la gestion de conflit. Le chapitre conclut en soulignant les contradictions et les effets associés à la délégation aux autorités coutumières par l'état Ethiopien de la résolution des conflits et de la maintenance de la sécurité. Le chapitre 9 se concentre sur l'impact des projets de développement financés par l'état et des politiques publiques qui régulent la propriété des terres communes dans les régions pastorales de l'Ethiopie. Ni les politiques publiques sectorielles existantes ni les principes institutionnels du fédéralisme ethnique ne reconnaissent les revendications et utilisations multiples qui se font des ressources dans la région aride et semi- aride, ce qui valide la proposition (3) sur le besoin d'un régime institutionnel de ressources différencié et flexible. Le chapitre attire l'attention sur les aspects contre-productifs d'une administration et d'une représentation politique basées sur un concept territorial, ce qui encourage une occupation permanente des ressources pour des bénéfices politiques. Le chapitre 10 conclut en évaluant la proposition (2) qui concerne l'efficacité de la gestion et de la transformation des conflits basés sur l'intégration des règles et lois coutumières et bureaucratiques. Ce chapitre souligne le rôle controversé mais décisif de la construction et de l'expansion graduelle de l'état dans les périphéries pastorales. Finalement, quelques recommandations sont proposées en vue de l'amélioration de la gestion des conflits et des ressources en milieu pastoral clans la région Somali et des espaces comparables dans la Corne de l'Afrique.

Use of the swat model for hydro-sedimentologic simulation in a small rural watershed

Mathematical models have great potential to support land use planning, with the goal of improving water and land quality. Before using a model, however, the model must demonstrate that it can correctly simulate the hydrological and erosive processes of a given site. The SWAT model (Soil and Water Assessment Tool) was developed in the United States to evaluate the effects of conservation agriculture on hydrological processes and water quality at the watershed scale. This model was initially proposed for use without calibration, which would eliminate the need for measured hydro-sedimentologic data. In this study, the SWAT model was evaluated in a small rural watershed (1.19 km²) located on the basalt slopes of the state of Rio Grande do Sul in southern Brazil, where farmers have been using cover crops associated with minimum tillage to control soil erosion. Values simulated by the model were compared with measured hydro-sedimentological data. Results for surface and total runoff on a daily basis were considered unsatisfactory (Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient - NSE < 0.5). However simulation results on monthly and annual scales were significantly better. With regard to the erosion process, the simulated sediment yields for all years of the study were unsatisfactory in comparison with the observed values on a daily and monthly basis (NSE values < -6), and overestimated the annual sediment yield by more than 100 %.

Evaluation of Gateway and Low-Cost Traffic-Calming Treatments for Major Routes in Small, Rural Communities, TR-523, 2007

Many rural communities have developed around highways or major county roads; as a result, the main street through small rural communities is often part of a high-speed rural highway. Highways and county roads are characterized by high speeds outside the city limits; they then transition into a reduced speed section through the rural community. Consequently, drivers passing through the community often enter at high speeds and maintain those speeds as they travel through the community. Traffic calming in small rural communities along major roadways is common in Europe, but the U.S. does not have experience with applying traffic-calming measures outside of major urban areas. The purpose of the project was to evaluate traffic-calming treatments on the major road through small Iowa communities using either single-measure low-cost or gateway treatments. The project was partially funded by the Iowa Highway Research Board (IHRB). The focus of the IHRB portion was to evaluate single-measure, low-cost, traffic-calming measures that are appropriate to major roads through small rural communities. Seven different low-cost traffic treatments were implemented and evaluated in five rural Iowa communities. The research evaluated the use of two gateway treatments in Union and Roland; five single-measure treatments (speed table, on-pavement “SLOW” markings, a driver speed feedback sign, tubular markers, and on-pavement entrance treatments) were evaluated in Gilbert, Slater, and Dexter.

Synthesis of Iowa Research to Address Rural Safety, RB04-013, 2014

Information about roadway departures, rural intersections, and rural speed management countermeasures relevant to Iowa was summarized on webpages (www.ctre.iastate.edu/research-synthesis/) to allow agencies to more effectively target specific types of crashes in Iowa. More information about each of the countermeasures described in this tech transfer summary, as well as speed impacts, reported crash modification factors, costs, usage within Iowa, and Iowa-specific guidance, is available on the Synthesis of Safety-Related Research web pages at www.ctre.iastate.edu/research-synthesis/. The project provides Iowa agencies with a resource (both web pages and relevant publications) to address rural safety. The team is coordinating with the Iowa Local Technical Assistance Program (LTAP), the Iowa Highway Research Board, the Iowa Association of Counties, and other groups to explore additional ways to distribute the information to local and county agencies.

Development of Concepts for Pavement Management, MLR-79-04, 1979

Sufficient evidence was not discovered in this brief search to alter the general opinion that the Serviceability (Present Serviceability Index-PSI) - Performance Concepts developed by the AASHO Road Test provides the optimum engineering basis for pavement management. Use of these concepts in Iowa has the additional advantage in that we have a reasonable quantity of historical data over a period of time on the change in pavement condition as measured by PSI's. Some additional benefits would be the ability to better assess our needs with respect to those being recommended to Congress by AASHTO Committees. These concepts have been the basis used for developing policies on dimensions and weight of vehicles and highway needs which the AASHTO Transport Committees have recommended to the United States House Committee on Ways and Means. The first recommendation based on these concepts was made in the mid 1960's. Iowa's participation in the evaluation for this recommendation was under the direction of our present Director of Transportation, Mr. Raymond Kassel. PSI Indexes had to be derived from subjective surface ratings at that time. The most recent recommendation to Congress was made in November of 1977. Based on the rationale expressed above, a pilot study of the major part of the rural interstate system was conducted. The Objective of the study was to measure pavement performance through the use of the Present Serviceability Index (PSI) - Pavement Performance concepts as developed by the AASHO Road Test and to explore the usefulness of this type of data as a pavement management tool. Projects in the vicinity of the major urban centers were not included in this study due to the extra time that would be required to isolate accurate traffic data in these areas. Projects consisting of asphalt surface courses on crushed stone base sections were not included.

Guidelines for Removal of Traffic Control Devices in Rural Areas, TR-527, 2005

It is commonly regarded that the overuse of traffic control devices desensitizes drivers and leads to disrespect, especially for low-volume secondary roads with limited enforcement. The maintenance of traffic signs is also a tort liability concern, exacerbated by unnecessary signs. The Federal Highway Administration’s (FHWA) Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) and the Institute of Transportation Engineer’s (ITE) Traffic Control Devices Handbook provide guidance for the implementation of STOP signs based on expected compliance with right-of-way rules, provision of through traffic flow, context (proximity to other controlled intersections), speed, sight distance, and crash history. The approach(es) to stop is left to engineering judgment and is usually dependent on traffic volume or functional class/continuity of system. Although presently being considered by the National Committee on Traffic Control Devices, traffic volume itself is not given as a criterion for implementation in the MUTCD. STOP signs have been installed at many locations for various reasons which no longer (or perhaps never) met engineering needs. If in fact the presence of STOP signs does not increase safety, removal should be considered. To date, however, no guidance exists for the removal of STOP signs at two-way stop-controlled intersections. The scope of this research is ultra-low-volume (< 150 daily entering vehicles) unpaved intersections in rural agricultural areas of Iowa, where each of the 99 counties may have as many as 300 or more STOP sign pairs. Overall safety performance is examined as a function of a county excessive use factor, developed specifically for this study and based on various volume ranges and terrain as a proxy for sight distance. Four conclusions are supported: (1) there is no statistical difference in the safety performance of ultra-low-volume stop-controlled and uncontrolled intersections for all drivers or for younger and older drivers (although interestingly, older drivers are underrepresented at both types of intersections); (2) compliance with stop control (as indicated by crash performance) does not appear to be affected by the use or excessive use of STOP signs, even when adjusted for volume and a sight distance proxy; (3) crash performance does not appear to be improved by the liberal use of stop control; (4) safety performance of uncontrolled intersections appears to decline relative to stop-controlled intersections above about 150 daily entering vehicles. Subject to adequate sight distance, traffic professionals may wish to consider removal of control below this threshold. The report concludes with a section on methods and legal considerations for safe removal of stop control.

Strategies to Address Nighttime Crashes at Rural, Unsignalized Intersections, TR-540, 2008

Citizens request the installation of roadway lighting in their communities based on several motivations, including the experience or perception that lighting improves traffic safety and reduces crime, while also providing a tangible benefit of taxpayer dollars at work. Roadway authority staff fully appreciate these citizen concerns; however, roadway lighting is expensive to install, supply energy to, and maintain in perpetuity. The installation of roadway lighting is only one of a number of strategies agencies have to address nighttime crash concerns. This research assists local agencies in deciding when, where, and how much rural intersection lighting to provide.

Asset Management Program Enhancement Plan: Baseline Assessment Phases I and II, 2015

This project resulted in the development of a framework for making asset management decisions on low-volume bridges. The research focused on low-volume bridges located in the agricultural counties of Iowa because recent research has shown that these counties have the greatest percentage of structurally deficient bridges in the nation. Many of the same counties also have the highest crop yields in the state, creating a situation where detours caused by deficient bridges on farm-to-market roads increase the cost to transport the crops. Thus, the research proposed the use of social return on investment (SROI), a tool used by international institutions such as the World Bank, as an asset management metric to gauge to the socioeconomic impact of structurally deficient bridges on the state in an effort to provide quantified justification to fund improvements on low-volume assets such as these rural bridges. The study found that combining SROI with current asset management metrics like average daily traffic (ADT) made it possible to prioritize the bridges in such a way that the limited resources available are allocated in a manner that promotes a more equitable distribution and that directly benefits the user, in this case Iowa farmers. The result is a system that more closely aligns itself with the spirit of MAP-21, in that infrastructure investments are used to facilitate economic growth for Iowa’s agricultural economy.

Rural Expressway Intersection Synthesis of Practice and Crash Analysis, 2004

This report presents a national synthesis of rural expressway, two-way stop -controlled (TWSC) intersection safety strategies and intersection designs and an analysis of Iowa expressway TWSC intersection crash characteristics. A rural expressway is a multi-lane highway with a divided median and with mostly at -grade intersections, although some intersections may be grade separated. The synthesis of intersection strategies is conducted in two parts. The first is a literature review and the second part is a national survey of strategies currently being applied by state transportation agencies. The characterization of crash patterns at TWSC expressway intersections is examined through the analysis of 5 years of crash data at 644 intersections.

High Priority Corridors for Access Management Near Large Urban Areas in Iowa, 2002

This research project was intended to produce a strategy for addressing current and future access management problems on state highway routes located just outside urban areas that serve as major routes for commuting into and out of major employment centers in Iowa. There were two basic goals: (1) to develop a ranking system for identifying high-priority segments for access management treatments on primary highways outside metro and urban areas and (2) to focus efforts on routes that are major commuting routes at present and in the future. The project focused on four-lane expressways and two-lane arterials most likely to serve extensive commuter traffic. Available spatial and statistical data were used to identify existing and possible future problem corridors with respect to access management. The research team developed a scheme for ranking commuter routes based on their need for attention to access management. This project was able to produce rankings for corridors based on a variety of factors, including proportion of crashes that appear to be access-related, severity of those crashes, and potential for improvement along corridors. Frequency and loss were found to be highly rank correlated; because of this, these indicators were not used together in developing final priority rankings. Most of the highest ranked routes are on two-lane rural cross sections, but a few are four-lane expressways with at-grade private driveways and public road intersections. The most important conclusion of the ranking system is that many of the poor-performing corridors are located in a single Iowa Department of Transportation district near two urban areas--Des Moines and Ames. A comprehensive approach to managing access along commuting corridors should be developed first in this district since the potential benefits would be highest in that region.

Access Management: A Review of Recent Literature, 1996

The Iowa Department of Transportation's Access Management Task Force was established as part of the Iowa Department of Transportation's overall Safety Management System (SMS) effort. The goal of the Access Management Task Force is to develop a program designed to educate and market the concept and benefits of access management to landowners and developers, professional planners and engineers, planning and zoning staff members, appointed and elected officials, and motorists. Access management is pursued through the design and control of driveways, curb cuts, turning movements, interior circulation of parking lots, and public street connections and intersections. Usually, state highways or major urban and suburban arterial streets are the targets of access management projects. Access management is also a concern on main county roads when there is a transition from a rural environment to a town or city.

Guidelines for the Inclusion of Left-Turn Lanes at Rural Highway Intersections, HR-147, 1970

Provision of left turn lanes is a major problem which lacks an objective approach. Various techniques and procedures in use have been reviewed. Traffic characteristics at typical Iowa intersections have been measured. A rational approach for inclusion of a left turn lane has been developed, based on relating the benefits to the road user to the cost of providing the added turing lane. An analysis of field data gathered under this project indicates that the use of theoretical distribution to describe vehicle headways is not applicable to rural Iowa two lane roads. As an alternate approach the mass of field data gathered were examined using multiple regression techniques to yield equations for predicting stops and delays. The benefit-cost ratio technique is recommended as the criterion for decision making.

Safety of a new algorithm for the management of childhood illness (Almanach) to improve quality of care and rational use of drugs

Introduction New evidence from randomized controlled and etiology of fever studies, the availability of reliable RDT for malaria, and novel technologies call for revision of the IMCI strategy. We developed a new algorithm based on (i) a systematic review of published studies assessing the safety and appropriateness of RDT and antibiotic prescription, (ii) results from a clinical and microbiological investigation of febrile children aged <5 years, (iii) international expert IMCI opinions. The aim of this study was to assess the safety of the new algorithm among patients in urban and rural areas of Tanzania.Materials and Methods The design was a controlled noninferiority study. Enrolled children aged 2-59 months with any illness were managed either by a study clinician using the new Almanach algorithm (two intervention health facilities), or clinicians using standard practice, including RDT (two control HF). At day 7 and day 14, all patients were reassessed. Patients who were ill in between or not cured at day 14 were followed until recovery or death. Primary outcome was rate of complications, secondary outcome rate of antibiotic prescriptions.Results 1062 children were recruited. Main diagnoses were URTI 26%, pneumonia 19% and gastroenteritis (9.4%). 98% (531/541) were cured at D14 in the Almanach arm and 99.6% (519/521) in controls. Rate of secondary hospitalization was 0.2% in each. One death occurred in controls. None of the complications was due to withdrawal of antibiotics or antimalarials at day 0. Rate of antibiotic use was 19% in the Almanach arm and 84% in controls.Conclusion Evidence suggests that the new algorithm, primarily aimed at the rational use of drugs, is as safe as standard practice and leads to a drastic reduction of antibiotic use. The Almanach is currently being tested for clinician adherence to proposed procedures when used on paper or a mobile phone

Universal Service Policies in Europe & Latam: Evidence on Bridging the Divide in Rural Areas

Broadband access is a key factor for economic and social development. However, providing broadband to rural areas is not attractive to private telecommunications operators due its low or zero investment return. To deal with broadband provision in rural areas, different governance systems based on private and public cooperation have appeared. This paper not only identifies and defines public and private cooperation models but also assesses their impact on overcoming the digital divide in rural areas. The results show that public ownership infrastructure under private management policy has had positive effects on reducing the broadband digital divide and being applied to areas with higher digital divide; subsides to private operators providers only positive effects on reducing broadband digital divide; but public infrastructure with public management programs did not. The results, obtained using quasi-experimental methods, suggest the importance of incentives and control mechanisms in broadband universal service provision plans.