Underwater emissions from a two-stroke outboard engine : a comparison between an EAL and an equivalent mineral lubricant

The emissions to water from a 1.9 kW two-stroke outboard engine were investigated in the laboratory and in the field, with the primary objective being to characterise and quantify the pollutants that remain within the water column. The emission rates of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were determined for the engine when using a mineral and an equivalent environmentally adapted lubricant (EAL). A comparison of the emission rates was conducted between the results from the fresh and sea water tests. The results showed that there was little difference in the emission rates of these pollutants when either of the lubricants was used in both the fresh and sea water. A further set of tests were done to find out the effect on pH of water due to the underwater emissions and these tests were done using both mineral and environmentally adapted lubricant. The results showed that the type of lubricant does not have any effect on the change in pH of the water.

Condition monitoring and diagnosis of injector faults in a diesel engine using in-cylinder pressure and acoustic emission techniques

Failing injectors are one of the most common faults in diesel engines. The severity of these faults could have serious effects on diesel engine operations such as engine misfire, knocking, insufficient power output or even cause a complete engine breakdown. It is thus essential to prevent such faults from occurring by monitoring the condition of these injectors. In this paper, the authors present the results of an experimental investigation on identifying the signal characteristics of a simulated incipient injector fault in a diesel engine using both in-cylinder pressure and acoustic emission (AE) techniques. A time waveform event driven synchronous averaging technique was used to minimize or eliminate the effect of engine speed variation and amplitude fluctuation. It was found that AE is an effective method to detect the simulated injector fault in both time (crank angle) and frequency (order) domains. It was also shown that the time domain in-cylinder pressure signal is a poor indicator for condition monitoring and diagnosis of the simulated injector fault due to the small effect of the simulated fault on the engine combustion process. Nevertheless, good correlations between the simulated injector fault and the lower order components of the enveloped in-cylinder pressure spectrum were found at various engine loading conditions.

A task-oriented approach to search engine usability studies

Usability is a multi-dimensional characteristic of a computer system. This paper focuses on usability as a measurement of interaction between the user and the system. The research employs a task-oriented approach to evaluate the usability of a meta search engine. This engine encourages and accepts queries of unlimited size expressed in natural language. A variety of conventional metrics developed by academic and industrial research, including ISO standards,, are applied to the information retrieval process consisting of sequential tasks. Tasks range from formulating (long) queries to interpreting and retaining search results. Results of the evaluation and analysis of the operation log indicate that obtaining advanced search engine results can be accomplished simultaneously with enhancing the usability of the interactive process. In conclusion, we discuss implications for interactive information retrieval system design and directions for future usability research. © 2008 Academy Publisher.

Web searcher interaction with the Dogpile.com metasearch engine

Metasearch engines are an intuitive method for improving the performance of Web search by increasing coverage, returning large numbers of results with a focus on relevance, and presenting alternative views of information needs. However, the use of metasearch engines in an operational environment is not well understood. In this study, we investigate the usage of Dogpile.com, a major Web metasearch engine, with the aim of discovering how Web searchers interact with metasearch engines. We report results examining 2,465,145 interactions from 534,507 users of Dogpile.com on May 6, 2005 and compare these results with findings from other Web searching studies. We collect data on geographical location of searchers, use of system feedback, content selection, sessions, queries, and term usage. Findings show that Dogpile.com searchers are mainly from the USA (84% of searchers), use about 3 terms per query (mean = 2.85), implement system feedback moderately (8.4% of users), and generally (56% of users) spend less than one minute interacting with the Web search engine. Overall, metasearchers seem to have higher degrees of interaction than searchers on non-metasearch engines, but their sessions are for a shorter period of time. These aspects of metasearching may be what define the differences from other forms of Web searching. We discuss the implications of our findings in relation to metasearch for Web searchers, search engines, and content providers.

A physico-chemical characterisation of particulate emissions from a compression ignition engine : the influence of biodiesel feedstock

This study undertook a physico-chemical characterisation of particle emissions from a single compression ignition engine operated at one test mode with 3 biodiesel fuels made from 3 different feedstocks (i.e. soy, tallow and canola) at 4 different blend percentages (20%, 40%, 60% and 80%) to gain insights into their particle-related health effects. Particle physical properties were inferred by measuring particle number size distributions both with and without heating within a thermodenuder (TD) and also by measuring particulate matter (PM) emission factors with an aerodynamic diameter less than 10 μm (PM10). The chemical properties of particulates were investigated by measuring particle and vapour phase Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) and also Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) concentrations. The particle number size distributions showed strong dependency on feedstock and blend percentage with some fuel types showing increased particle number emissions, whilst others showed particle number reductions. In addition, the median particle diameter decreased as the blend percentage was increased. Particle and vapour phase PAHs were generally reduced with biodiesel, with the results being relatively independent of the blend percentage. The ROS concentrations increased monotonically with biodiesel blend percentage, but did not exhibit strong feedstock variability. Furthermore, the ROS concentrations correlated quite well with the organic volume percentage of particles – a quantity which increased with increasing blend percentage. At higher blend percentages, the particle surface area was significantly reduced, but the particles were internally mixed with a greater organic volume percentage (containing ROS) which has implications for using surface area as a regulatory metric for diesel particulate matter (DPM) emissions.

Field study of air change and flow rate in six automobiles

For many people, a relatively large proportion of daily exposure to a multitude of pollutants may occur inside an automobile. A key determinant of exposure is the amount of outdoor air entering the cabin (i.e. air change or flow rate). We have quantified this parameter in six passenger vehicles ranging in age from 18 years to <1 year, at three vehicle speeds and under four different ventilation settings. Average infiltration into the cabin with all operable air entry pathways closed was between 1 and 33.1 air changes per hour (ACH) at a vehicle speed of 60 km/h, and between 2.6 and 47.3 ACH at 110 km/h, with these results representing the most (2005 Volkswagen Golf) and least air-tight (1989 Mazda 121) vehicles, respectively. Average infiltration into stationary vehicles parked outdoors varied between ~0 and 1.4 ACH and was moderately related to wind speed. Measurements were also performed under an air recirculation setting with low fan speed, while airflow rate measurements were conducted under two non-recirculate ventilation settings with low and high fan speeds. The windows were closed in all cases, and over 200 measurements were performed. The results can be applied to estimate pollutant exposure inside vehicles.

Separation of acoustic emission signals from small size multi-cylinder diesel engine

This paper presents techniques which can lead to diagnosis of faults in a small size multi-cylinder diesel engine. Preliminary analysis of the acoustic emission (AE) signals is outline, including time-frequency analysis and selection of optimum frequency band.The results of applying mean field independent component analysis (MFICA) to separate the AE root mean square (RMS) signals and the effects of changing parameter values are also outlined. The results on separation of RMS signals show thsi technique has the potential of increasing the probability to successfully identify the AE events associated with the various mechanical events within the combustion process of multi-cylinder diesel engines.

Acoustic emission for diesel engine monitoring: A review and preliminary

Vibration analysis has been a prime tool in condition monitoring of rotating machines, however, its application to internal combustion engines remains a challenge because engine vibration signatures are highly non-stationary that are not suitable for popular spectrum-based analysis. Signal-to-noise ratio is a main concern in engine signature analysis due to severe background noise being generated by consecutive mechanical events, such as combustion, valve opening and closing, especially in multi-cylinder engines. Acoustic Emission (AE) has been found to give excellent signal-to-noise ratio allowing discrimination of fine detail of normal or abnormal events during a given cycle. AE has been used to detect faults, such as exhaust valve leakage, fuel injection behaviour, and aspects of the combustion process. This paper presents a review of AE application to diesel engine monitoring and preliminary investigation of AE signature measured on an 18-cylinder diesel engine. AE is compared with vibration acceleration for varying operating conditions: load and speed. Frequency characteristics of AE from those events are analysed in time-frequency domain via short time Fourier trasform. The result shows a great potential of AE analysis for detection of various defects in diesel engines.

Gaseous and particle emissions from an ethanol fumigated compression ignition engine

A 4-cylinder Ford 2701C test engine was used in this study to explore the impact of ethanol fumigation on gaseous and particle emission concentrations. The fumigation technique delivered vaporised ethanol into the intake manifold of the engine, using an injector, a pump and pressure regulator, a heat exchanger for vaporising ethanol and a separate fuel tank and lines. Gaseous (Nitric oxide (NO), Carbon monoxide (CO) and hydrocarbons (HC)) and particulate emissions (particle mass (PM2.5) and particle number) testing was conducted at intermediate speed (1700 rpm) using 4 load settings with ethanol substitution percentages ranging from 10-40 % (by energy). With ethanol fumigation, NO and PM2.5 emissions were reduced, whereas CO and HC emissions increased considerably and particle number emissions increased at most test settings. It was found that ethanol fumigation reduced the excess air factor for the engine and this led to increased emissions of CO and HC, but decreased emissions of NO. PM2.5 emissions were reduced with ethanol fumigation, as ethanol has a very low “sooting” tendency. This is due to the higher hydrogen-to-carbon ratio of this fuel, and also because ethanol does not contain aromatics, both of which are known soot precursors. The use of a diesel oxidation catalyst (as an after-treatment device) is recommended to achieve a reduction in the four pollutants that are currently regulated for compression ignition engines. The increase in particle number emissions with ethanol fumigation was due to the formation of volatile (organic) particles; consequently, using a diesel oxidation catalyst will also assist in reducing particle number emissions.

Diesel engine problems, acoustic emission signals and simulated misfire faults

This paper discusses commonly encountered diesel engine problems and the underlying combustion related faults. Also discussed are the methods used in previous studies to simulate diesel engine faults and the initial results of an experimental simulation of a common combustion related diesel engine fault, namely diesel engine misfire. This experimental fault simulation represents the first step towards a comprehensive investigation and analysis into the characteristics of acoustic emission signals arising from combustion related diesel engine faults. Data corresponding to different engine running conditions was captured using in-cylinder pressure, vibration and acoustic emission transducers along with both crank-angle encoder and top-dead centre signals. Using these signals, it was possible to characterise the diesel engine in-cylinder pressure profiles and the effect of different combustion conditions on both vibration and acoustic emission signals.

Physicochemical characterization of particulate emissions from a compression ignition engine employing two injection technologies and three fuels

Alternative fuels and injection technologies are a necessary component of particulate emission reduction strategies for compression ignition engines. Consequently, this study undertakes a physicochemical characterization of diesel particulate matter (DPM) for engines equipped with alternative injection technologies (direct injection and common rail) and alternative fuels (ultra low sulfur diesel, a 20% biodiesel blend, and a synthetic diesel). Particle physical properties were addressed by measuring particle number size distributions, and particle chemical properties were addressed by measuring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Particle volatility was determined by passing the polydisperse size distribution through a thermodenuder set to 300 °C. The results from this study, conducted over a four point test cycle, showed that both fuel type and injection technology have an impact on particle emissions, but injection technology was the more important factor. Significant particle number emission (54%–84%) reductions were achieved at half load operation (1% increase–43% decrease at full load) with the common rail injection system; however, the particles had a significantly higher PAH fraction (by a factor of 2 to 4) and ROS concentrations (by a factor of 6 to 16) both expressed on a test-cycle averaged basis. The results of this study have significant implications for the health effects of DPM emissions from both direct injection and common rail engines utilizing various alternative fuels.

Effect of engine backpressure on the performance and emissions of a CI engine

This study investigated the effect of engine backpressure on the performance and emissions of a CI engine under different speed and load conditions. A 4-stroke single cylinder naturally aspirated direct injection (DI) diesel engine was used for the investigation with the backpressure of 0, 40, 60 and 80 mm of Hg at engine speed of 600, 950 and 1200 rpm. Two parameters were measured during the engine operation: one is engine performance (brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption), and the other is the exhaust emissions (NOx, CO and odor). NOx and CO emission were measured by flue gas analyzer (IMR 1400). The engine backpressure produced by the flow regulating valve in the exhaust line was measured by Hg (mercury) manometer. The result showed that, the brake thermal efficiency and brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc) are almost unchanged with increasing backpressure up to 40 mm of Hg pressure for all engine speed and load conditions. The NOx emission became constant or a little decreased with increasing backpressure. The formation of CO was slightly higher with increase of load and back pressure at low engine speed condition. However, under high speed conditions, CO reduced significantly with increasing backpressure for all load conditions. The odor level was similar or a little higher with increasing backpressure for all engine speed and load conditions. Hence, backpressure up to a certain level is not detrimental for a CI engine.

Signal patterns of piston slap of a four-cylinder diesel engine

This paper presents an experimental study on the vibration signal patterns associated with a simulated piston slap test of a four-cylinder diesel engine. It is found that a simulated worn-off piston results in an increase in vibration RMS peak amplitudes associated with the major mechanical events of the corresponding cylinder (i.e., inlet and exhaust valve closing and combustion of Cylinder 1). This then led to an increase of overall vibration amplitude of the time domain statistical features such as RMS, Crest Factor, Skewness and Kurtosis in all loading conditions. The simulated worn-off piston not only increased the impact amplitude of piston slap during the engine combustion, it also produced a distinct impulse response during the air induction stroke of the cylinder attributing to an increase of lateral impact force as a result of piston reciprocating motion and the increased clearance between the worn-off piston and the cylinder. The unique signal patterns of piston slap disclosed in this paper can be utilized to assist in the development of condition monitoring tools for automated diagnosis of similar diesel engine faults in practical applications.

Calculation of engine parameters using reconfigurable hardware

The feasibility of real-time calculation of parameters for an internal combustion engine via reconfigurable hardware implementation is investigated as an alternative to software computation. A detailed in-hardware field programmable gate array (FPGA)-based design is developed and evaluated using input crank angle and in-cylinder pressure data from fully instrumented diesel engines in the QUT Biofuel Engine Research Facility (BERF). Results indicate the feasibility of employing a hardware-based implementation for real-time processing for speeds comparable to the data sampling rate currently used in the facility, with acceptably low level of discrepancies between hardware and software-based calculation of key engine parameters.