Ritonavir inhibits intratumoral docetaxel metabolism and enhances docetaxel antitumor activity in an immunocompetent mouse breast cancer model

Docetaxel (Taxotere(®) ) is currently used intravenously as an anticancer agent and is primarily metabolized by Cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A). The HIV protease inhibitor ritonavir, a strong CYP3A4 inhibitor, decreased first-pass metabolism of orally administered docetaxel. Anticancer effects of ritonavir itself have also been described. We here aimed to test whether ritonavir co-administration could decrease intratumoral metabolism of intravenously administered docetaxel and thus increase the antitumor activity of docetaxel in an orthotopic, immunocompetent mouse model for breast cancer. Spontaneously arising K14cre;Brca1(F/F) ;p53(F/F) mouse mammary tumors were orthotopically implanted in syngeneic mice lacking Cyp3a (Cyp3a(-/-) ) to limit ritonavir effects on systemic docetaxel clearance. Over 3 weeks, docetaxel (20 mg/kg) was administered intravenously once weekly, with or without ritonavir (12.5 mg/kg) administered orally for 5 days per week. Untreated mice were used as control for tumor growth. Ritonavir treatment alone did not significantly affect the median time of survival (14 vs. 10 days). Median time of survival in docetaxel-treated mice was 54 days. Ritonavir co-treatment significantly increased this to 66 days, and substantially reduced relative average tumor size, without altering tumor histology. Concentrations of the major docetaxel metabolite M2 in tumor tissue were reduced by ritonavir co-administration, whereas tumor RNA expression of Cyp3a was unaltered. In this breast cancer model, we observed no direct antitumor effect of ritonavir alone, but we found enhanced efficacy of docetaxel treatment when combined with ritonavir. Our data, therefore, suggest that decreased docetaxel metabolism inside the tumor as a result of Cyp3a inhibition contributes to increased antitumor activity.

RNA binding characteristics and overall topology of the vaccinia virus polyadenylation complex

mRNA 3′ polyadenylation is central to mRNA biogenesis in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, and is implicated in numerous aspects of mRNA metabolism, including efficiency of mRNA export from the nucleus, message stability, and initiation of translation. However, due to the great complexity of the eukaryotic polyadenylation apparatus, the mechanisms of RNA 3 ′ end processing have remained elusive. Although the RNA processing reactions leading to polyadenylated messenger RNA have been studied in many systems, and much progress has been made, a complete understanding of the biochemistry of the poly(A) polymerase enzyme is still lacking. My research uses Vaccinia virus as a model system to gain a better understanding of this complicated polyadenylation process, which consist of RNA binding, catalysis and polymerase translocation. ^ Vaccinia virus replicates in the cytoplasm of its host cell, so it must employ its own poly(A) polymerase (PAP), a heterodimer of two virus encoded proteins, VP55 and VP39. VP55 is the catalytic subunit, adding 30 adenylates to a non-polyadenylated RNA in a rapid processive manner before abruptly changing to a slow, non-processive mode of adenylate addition and dissociating from the RNA. VP39 is the stimulatory subunit. It has no polyadenylation catalytic activity by itself, but when associated with VP55 it facilitates the semi-processive synthesis of tails several hundred adenylates in length. ^ Oligonucleotide selection and competition studies have shown that the heterodimer binds a minimal motif of (rU)2 (N)25 U, the “heterodimer binding motif”, within an oligonucleotide, and its primer selection for polyadenylation is base-type specific. ^ Crosslinking studies using photosensitive uridylate analogs show that within a VP55-VP39-primer ternary complex, VP55 comes into contact with all three required uridylates, while VP39 only contacts the downstream uridylate. Further studies, using a backbone-anchored photosensitive crosslinker show that both PAP subunits are in close proximity to the downstream −10 to −21 region of 50mer model primers containing the heterodimer binding motif. This equal crosslinking to both subunits suggests that the dimerization of VP55 and VP39 creates either a cleft or a channel between the two subunits through which this region of RNA passes. ^ Peptide mapping studies of VP39 covalently crosslinked to the oligonucleotide have identified residue R107 as the amino acid in close proximity to the −10 uridylate. This helps us project a conceptual model onto the known physical surface of this subunit. In the absence of any tertiary structural data for VP55, we have used a series of oligonucleotide selection assays, as well as crosslinking, nucleotide transfer assays, and gel shift assays to gain insight into the requirements for binding, polyadenylation and translocation. Collectively, these data allow us to put together a comprehensive model of the structure and function of the polyadenylation ternary complex consisting of VP39, VP55 and RNA. ^

Metabolism and actions of 2 -chloro-2$\sp\prime$-fluoro-arabinosyladenine

2-Chloro-9-(2-deoxy-2-fluoro-$\beta $-D-arabinofuranosyl)adenine(Cl-F-ara-A) is a new deoxyadenosine analogue which is resistant to phosphorolytic cleavage and deamination, and exhibits therapeutic activity for both leukemia and solid tumors in experimental systems. To characterize its mechanism of cytotoxicity, the present study investigated the cellular pharmacology and the biochemical and molecular mechanisms of action of Cl-F-ara-A, from entrance of the drug into the cell, chemical changes to active metabolites, targeting on different cellular enzymes, to final programmed cell death response to the drug treatment.^ Cl-F-ara-A exhibited potent inhibitory action on DNA synthesis in a concentration-dependent and irreversible manner. The mono-, di-, and triphosphates of Cl-F-ara-A accumulated in cells, and their elimination was non-linear with a prolonged terminal phase, which resulted in prolonged dNTP depression. Ribonucleotide reductase activity was inversely correlated with the cellular Cl-F-ara-ATP level, and the inhibition of the reductase was saturated at higher cellular Cl-F-ara-ATP concentrations. The sustained inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase and the consequent depletion of deoxynucleotide triphosphate pools result in a cellular Cl-F-ara-ATP to dATP ratio which favors analogue incorporation into DNA.^ Incubation of CCRF-CEM cells with Cl-F-ara-A resulted in the incorporation of Cl-F-ara-AMP into DNA. A much lesser amount was associated with RNA, suggesting that Cl-F-ara-A is a more DNA-directed compound. The site of Cl-F-ara-AMP in DNA was related to the ratio of the cellular concentrations of the analogue triphosphate and the natural substrate dATP. Clonogenicity assays showed a strong inverse correlation between cell survival and Cl-F-ara-AMP incorporation into DNA, suggesting that the incorporation of Cl-F-ara-A monophosphate into DNA is critical for the cytotoxicity of Cl-F-ara-A.^ Cl-F-ara-ATP competed with dATP for incorporation into the A-site of the extending DNA strand catalyzed by both DNA polymerase $\alpha$ and $\varepsilon$. The incorporation of Cl-F-ara-AMP into DNA resulted in termination of DNA strand elongation, with the most pronounced effect being observed at Cl-F-ara-ATP:dATP ratio $>$1. The presence of Cl-F-ara-AMP at the 3$\sp\prime$-terminus of DNA also resulted in an increased incidence of nucleotide misincorporation in the following nucleotide position. The DNA termination and the nucleotide misincorporation induced by the incorporation of Cl-F-ara-AMP into DNA may contribute to the cytotoxicity of Cl-F-ara-A. ^

Noncytopathic Sindbis virus RNA vectors for heterologous gene expression

Infection of vertebrate cells with alphaviruses normally leads to prodigious expression of virus-encoded genes and a dramatic inhibition of host protein synthesis. Recombinant Sindbis viruses and replicons have been useful as vectors for high level foreign gene expression, but the cytopathic effects of viral replication have limited their use to transient studies. We recently selected Sindbis replicons capable of persistent, noncytopathic growth in BHK cells and describe here a new generation of Sindbis vectors useful for long-term foreign gene expression based on such replicons. Foreign genes of interest as well as the dominant selectable marker puromycin N-acteyltransferase, which confers resistance to the drug puromycin, were expressed as subgenomic transcripts of noncytopathic replicons or defective-interfering genomes complemented in trans by a replicon. Based on these strategies, we developed vectors that can be initiated via either RNA or DNA transfection and analyzed them for their level and stability of foreign gene expression. Noncytopathic Sindbis vectors express reasonably high levels of protein in nearly every cell. These vectors should prove to be flexible tools for the rapid expression of heterologous genes under conditions in which cellular metabolism is not perturbed, and we illustrate their utility with a number of foreign proteins.

Coiled Bodies Preferentially Associate with U4, U11, and U12 Small Nuclear RNA Genes in Interphase HeLa Cells but Not with U6 and U7 Genes

Coiled bodies (CBs) are nuclear organelles involved in the metabolism of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and histone messages. Their structural morphology and molecular composition have been conserved from plants to animals. CBs preferentially and specifically associate with genes that encode U1, U2, and U3 snRNAs as well as the cell cycle–regulated histone loci. A common link among these previously identified CB-associated genes is that they are either clustered or tandemly repeated in the human genome. In an effort to identify additional loci that associate with CBs, we have isolated and mapped the chromosomal locations of genomic clones corresponding to bona fide U4, U6, U7, U11, and U12 snRNA loci. Unlike the clustered U1 and U2 genes, each of these loci encode a single gene, with the exception of the U4 clone, which contains two genes. We next examined the association of these snRNA genes with CBs and found that they colocalized less frequently than their multicopy counterparts. To differentiate a lower level of preferential association from random colocalization, we developed a theoretical model of random colocalization, which yielded expected values for χ2 tests against the experimental data. Certain single-copy snRNA genes (U4, U11, and U12) but not controls were found to significantly (p < 0.000001) associate with CBs. Recent evidence indicates that the interactions between CBs and genes are mediated by nascent transcripts. Taken together, these new results suggest that CB association may be substantially augmented by the increased transcriptional capacity of clustered genes. Possible functional roles for the observed interactions of CBs with snRNA genes are discussed.

Molecular control of vertebrate iron metabolism: mRNA-based regulatory circuits operated by iron, nitric oxide, and oxidative stress.

As an essential nutrient and a potential toxin, iron poses an exquisite regulatory problem in biology and medicine. At the cellular level, the basic molecular framework for the regulation of iron uptake, storage, and utilization has been defined. Two cytoplasmic RNA-binding proteins, iron-regulatory protein-1 (IRP-1) and IRP-2, respond to changes in cellular iron availability and coordinate the expression of mRNAs that harbor IRP-binding sites, iron-responsive elements (IREs). Nitric oxide (NO) and oxidative stress in the form of H2O2 also signal to IRPs and thereby influence cellular iron metabolism. The recent discovery of two IRE-regulated mRNAs encoding enzymes of the mitochondrial citric acid cycle may represent the beginnings of elucidating regulatory coupling between iron and energy metabolism. In addition to providing insights into the regulation of iron metabolism and its connections with other cellular pathways, the IRE/IRP system has emerged as a prime example for the understanding of translational regulation and mRNA stability control. Finally, IRP-1 has highlighted an unexpected role for iron sulfur clusters as post-translational regulatory switches.

Differences in the RNA binding sites of iron regulatory proteins and potential target diversity.

Posttranscriptional regulation of genes of mammalian iron metabolism is mediated by the interaction of iron regulatory proteins (IRPs) with RNA stem-loop sequence elements known as iron-responsive elements (IREs). There are two identified IRPs, IRP1 and IRP2, each of which binds consensus IREs present in eukaryotic transcripts with equal affinity. Site-directed mutagenesis of IRP1 and IRP2 reveals that, although the binding affinities for consensus IREs are indistinguishable, the contributions of arginine residues in the active-site cleft to the binding affinity are different in the two RNA binding sites. Furthermore, although each IRP binds the consensus IRE with high affinity, each IRP also binds a unique alternative ligand, which was identified in an in vitro systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment procedure. Differences in the two binding sites may be important in the function of the IRE-IRP regulatory system.

Investigation of the prebiotic synthesis of amino acids and RNA bases from CO2 using FeS/H2S as a reducing agent.

An autotrophic theory of the origin of metabolism and life has been proposed in which carbon dioxide is reduced by ferrous sulfide and hydrogen sulfide by means of a reversed citric acid cycle, leading to the production of amino acids. Similar processes have been proposed for purine synthesis. Ferrous sulfide is a strong reducing agent in the presence of hydrogen sulfide and can produce hydrogen as well as reduce alkenes, alkynes, and thiols to saturated hydrocarbons and reduce ketones to thiols. However, the reduction of carbon dioxide has not been demonstrated. We show here that no amino acids, purines, or pyrimidines are produced from carbon dioxide with the ferrous sulfide and hydrogen sulfide system. Furthermore, this system does not produce amino acids from carboxylic acids by reductive amination and carboxylation. Thus, the proposed autotrophic theory, using carbon dioxide, ferrous sulfide, and hydrogen sulfide, lacks the robustness needed to be a geological process and is, therefore, unlikely to have played a role in the origin of metabolism or the origin of life.

Evidence for incorporation of intact dietary pyrimidine (but not purine) nucleosides into hepatic RNA.

The absorption and metabolism of dietary nucleic acids have received less attention than those of other organic nutrients, largely because of methodological difficulties. We supplemented the rations of poultry and mice with the edible alga Spirulina platensis, which had been uniformly labeled with 13C by hydroponic culture in 13CO2. The rations were ingested by a hen for 4 wk and by four mice for 6 days; two mice were fed a normal diet and two were fed a nucleic acid-deficient diet. The animals were killed and nucleosides were isolated from hepatic RNA. The isotopic enrichment of all mass isotopomers of the nucleosides was analyzed by selected ion monitoring of the negative chemical ionization mass spectrum and the labeling pattern was deconvoluted by reference to the enrichment pattern of the tracer material. We found a distinct difference in the 13C enrichment pattern between pyrimidine and purine nucleosides; the isotopic enrichment of uniformly labeled [M + 9] isotopomers of pyrimidines exceeded that of purines [M + 10] by > 2 orders of magnitude in the avian nucleic acids and by 7- and 14-fold in the murine nucleic acids. The purines were more enriched in lower mass isotopomers, those less than [M + 3], than the pyrimidines. Our results suggest that large quantities of dietary pyrimidine nucleosides and almost no dietary purine nucleosides are incorporated into hepatic nucleic acids without hydrolytic removal of the ribose moiety. In addition, our results support a potential nutritional role for nucleosides and suggest that pyrimidines are conditionally essential organic nutrients.

Coiled bodies contain U7 small nuclear RNA and associate with specific DNA sequences in interphase human cells.

Coiled bodies (CBs) are nuclear organelles whose structures appear to be highly conserved in evolution. In rapidly cycling cells, they are typically located in the nucleoplasm but are often found in contact with the nucleolus. The CBs in human cells contain a unique protein, called p80-coilin. Studies on amphibian oocyte nuclei have revealed a protein within the "sphere" organelle that shares significant structural similarity to p80-coilin. Spheres and CBs are also highly enriched in small nuclear ribonucleoproteins and other RNA-processing components. We present evidence that, like spheres, CBs contain U7 small nuclear RNA (snRNA) and associate with specific chromosomal loci. Using biotinylated 2'-O-methyl oligonucleotides complementary to the 5' end of U7 snRNA and fluorescence in situ hybridization, we show that U7 is distributed throughout the nucleoplasm, excluding nucleoli, and is concentrated in CBs. Interestingly, we found that CBs often associate with subsets of the histone, U1, and U2 snRNA gene loci in interphase HeLa-ATCC and HEp-2 monolayer cells. However, in a strain of suspension-grown HeLa cells, called HeLa-JS1000, we found a much lower rate of association between CBs and snRNA genes. Possible roles for CBs in the metabolism of these various histone and snRNAs are discussed.

The chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factors modulate genes and pathways involved in skeletal muscle cell metabolism

The chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factors ( COUP-TFs) are orphan members of the nuclear hormone receptor ( NR) superfamily. COUP-TFs are involved in organogenesis and neurogenesis. However, their role in skeletal muscle ( and other major mass tissues) and metabolism remains obscure. Skeletal muscle accounts for similar to 40% of total body mass and energy expenditure. Moreover, this peripheral tissue is a primary site of glucose and fatty acid utilization. We utilize small interfering RNA ( siRNA)-mediated attenuation of Coup-TfI and II ( mRNA and protein) in a skeletal muscle cell culture model to understand the regulatory role of Coup-Tfs in this energy demanding tissue. This targeted NR repression resulted in the significant attenuation of genes that regulate lipid mobilization and utilization ( including Ppar alpha, Fabp3, and Cpt-1). This was coupled to reduced fatty acid beta-oxidation. Additionally we observed significant attenuation of Ucp1, a gene involved in energy expenditure. Concordantly, we observed a 5-fold increase in ATP levels in cells with siRNA-mediated repression of Coup-TfI and II. Furthermore, the expression of classical liver X receptor ( LXR) target genes involved in reverse cholesterol transport ( Abca1 and Abcg1) were both significantly repressed. Moreover, we observed that repression of the Coup-Tfs ablated the activation of Abca1, and Abcg1 mRNA expression by the selective LXR agonist, T0901317. In concordance, Coup-Tf-siRNA-transfected cells were refractory to Lxr-mediated reduction of total intracellular cholesterol levels in contrast to the negative control cells. In agreement Lxr-mediated activation of the Abca1 promoter in Coup-Tf-siRNA cells was attenuated. Collectively, these data suggest a pivotal role for Coup-Tfs in the regulation of lipid utilization/cholesterol homeostasis in skeletal muscle cells and the modulation of Lxr-dependent gene regulation.

RNA interference-inducing hairpin RNAs in plants act through the viral defence pathway

RNA interference (RNAi) is widely used to silence genes in plants and animals. it operates through the degradation of target mRNA by endonuclease complexes guided by approximately 21 nucleotide (nt) short interfering RNAs (siRNAs). A similar process regulates the expression of some developmental genes through approximately 21 nt microRNAs. Plants have four types of Dicer-like (DCL) enzyme, each producing small RNAs with different functions. Here, we show that DCL2, DCL3 and DCL4 in Arabidopsis process both replicating viral RNAs and RNAi-inducing hairpin RNAs (hpRNAs) into 22-, 24- and 21 nt siRNAs, respectively, and that loss of both DCL2 and DCL4 activities is required to negate RNAi and to release the plant's repression of viral replication. We also show that hpRNAs, similar to viral infection, can engender long-distance silencing signals and that hpRNA-induced silencing is suppressed by the expression of a virus-derived suppressor protein. These findings indicate that hpRNA-mediated RNAi in plants operates through the viral defence pathway.

Nitrate metabolism in the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedrum

Les dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires retrouvés dans la plupart des écosystèmes aquatiques du globe. Ces organismes amènent une contribution substantielle à la production primaire des océans, soit en tant que membre du phytoplancton, soit en tant que symbiontes des anthozoaires formant les récifs coralliens. Malheureusement, ce rôle écologique majeur est souvent négligé face à la capacité de certaines espèces de dinoflagellés à former des fleurs d'eau, parfois d'étendue et de durée spectaculaires. Ces floraisons d'algues, communément appelées "marées rouges", peuvent avoir de graves conséquences sur les écosystèmes côtiers, sur les industries de la pêche et du tourisme, ainsi que sur la santé humaine. Un des facteurs souvent corrélé avec la formation des fleurs d'eau est une augmentation dans la concentration de nutriments, notamment l’azote et le phosphore. Le nitrate est un des composants principaux retrouvés dans les eaux de ruissellement agricoles, mais également la forme d'azote bioaccessible la plus abondante dans les écosystèmes marins. Ainsi, l'agriculture humaine a contribué à magnifier significativement les problèmes associés aux marées rouges au niveau mondial. Cependant, la pollution ne peut pas expliquer à elle seule la formation et la persistance des fleurs d'eau, qui impliquent plusieurs facteurs biotiques et abiotiques. Il est particulièrement difficile d'évaluer l'importance relative qu'ont les ajouts de nitrate par rapport à ces autres facteurs, parce que le métabolisme du nitrate chez les dinoflagellés est largement méconnu. Le but principal de cette thèse vise à remédier à cette lacune. J'ai choisi Lingulodinium polyedrum comme modèle pour l'étude du métabolisme du nitrate, parce que ce dinoflagellé est facilement cultivable en laboratoire et qu'une étude transcriptomique a récemment fourni une liste de gènes pratiquement complète pour cette espèce. Il est également intéressant que certaines composantes moléculaires de la voie du nitrate chez cet organisme soient sous contrôle circadien. Ainsi, dans ce projet, j'ai utilisé des analyses physiologiques, biochimiques, transcriptomiques et bioinformatiques pour enrichir nos connaissances sur le métabolisme du nitrate des dinoflagellés et nous permettre de mieux apprécier le rôle de l'horloge circadienne dans la régulation de cette importante voie métabolique primaire. Je me suis tout d'abord penché sur les cas particuliers où des floraisons de dinoflagellés sont observées dans des conditions de carence en azote. Cette idée peut sembler contreintuitive, parce que l'ajout de nitrate plutôt que son épuisement dans le milieu est généralement associé aux floraisons d'algues. Cependant, j’ai découvert que lorsque du nitrate était ajouté à des cultures initialement carencées ou enrichies en azote, celles qui s'étaient acclimatées au stress d'azote arrivaient à survivre près de deux mois à haute densité cellulaire, alors que les cellules qui n'étaient pas acclimatées mourraient après deux semaines. En condition de carence d'azote sévère, les cellules arrivaient à survivre un peu plus de deux semaines et ce, en arrêtant leur cycle cellulaire et en diminuant leur activité photosynthétique. L’incapacité pour ces cellules carencées à synthétiser de nouveaux acides aminés dans un contexte où la photosynthèse était toujours active a mené à l’accumulation de carbone réduit sous forme de granules d’amidon et corps lipidiques. Curieusement, ces deux réserves de carbone se trouvaient à des pôles opposés de la cellule, suggérant un rôle fonctionnel à cette polarisation. La deuxième contribution de ma thèse fut d’identifier et de caractériser les premiers transporteurs de nitrate chez les dinoflagellés. J'ai découvert que Lingulodinium ne possédait que très peu de transporteurs comparativement à ce qui est observé chez les plantes et j'ai suggéré que seuls les membres de la famille des transporteurs de nitrate de haute affinité 2 (NRT2) étaient réellement impliqués dans le transport du nitrate. Le principal transporteur chez Lingulodinium était exprimé constitutivement, suggérant que l’acquisition du nitrate chez ce dinoflagellé se fondait majoritairement sur un système constitutif plutôt qu’inductible. Enfin, j'ai démontré que l'acquisition du nitrate chez Lingulodinium était régulée par la lumière et non par l'horloge circadienne, tel qu'il avait été proposé dans une étude antérieure. Finalement, j’ai utilisé une approche RNA-seq pour vérifier si certains transcrits de composantes impliquées dans le métabolisme du nitrate de Lingulodinium étaient sous contrôle circadien. Non seulement ai-je découvert qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière dans les niveaux des transcrits impliqués dans le métabolisme du nitrate, j’ai aussi constaté qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière pour n’importe quel ARN du transcriptome de Lingulodinium. Cette découverte a démontré que l’horloge de ce dinoflagellé n'avait pas besoin de transcription rythmique pour générer des rythmes physiologiques comme observé chez les autres eukaryotes.

Nitrate metabolism in the dinoflagellate Lingulodinium polyedrum

Les dinoflagellés sont des eucaryotes unicellulaires retrouvés dans la plupart des écosystèmes aquatiques du globe. Ces organismes amènent une contribution substantielle à la production primaire des océans, soit en tant que membre du phytoplancton, soit en tant que symbiontes des anthozoaires formant les récifs coralliens. Malheureusement, ce rôle écologique majeur est souvent négligé face à la capacité de certaines espèces de dinoflagellés à former des fleurs d'eau, parfois d'étendue et de durée spectaculaires. Ces floraisons d'algues, communément appelées "marées rouges", peuvent avoir de graves conséquences sur les écosystèmes côtiers, sur les industries de la pêche et du tourisme, ainsi que sur la santé humaine. Un des facteurs souvent corrélé avec la formation des fleurs d'eau est une augmentation dans la concentration de nutriments, notamment l’azote et le phosphore. Le nitrate est un des composants principaux retrouvés dans les eaux de ruissellement agricoles, mais également la forme d'azote bioaccessible la plus abondante dans les écosystèmes marins. Ainsi, l'agriculture humaine a contribué à magnifier significativement les problèmes associés aux marées rouges au niveau mondial. Cependant, la pollution ne peut pas expliquer à elle seule la formation et la persistance des fleurs d'eau, qui impliquent plusieurs facteurs biotiques et abiotiques. Il est particulièrement difficile d'évaluer l'importance relative qu'ont les ajouts de nitrate par rapport à ces autres facteurs, parce que le métabolisme du nitrate chez les dinoflagellés est largement méconnu. Le but principal de cette thèse vise à remédier à cette lacune. J'ai choisi Lingulodinium polyedrum comme modèle pour l'étude du métabolisme du nitrate, parce que ce dinoflagellé est facilement cultivable en laboratoire et qu'une étude transcriptomique a récemment fourni une liste de gènes pratiquement complète pour cette espèce. Il est également intéressant que certaines composantes moléculaires de la voie du nitrate chez cet organisme soient sous contrôle circadien. Ainsi, dans ce projet, j'ai utilisé des analyses physiologiques, biochimiques, transcriptomiques et bioinformatiques pour enrichir nos connaissances sur le métabolisme du nitrate des dinoflagellés et nous permettre de mieux apprécier le rôle de l'horloge circadienne dans la régulation de cette importante voie métabolique primaire. Je me suis tout d'abord penché sur les cas particuliers où des floraisons de dinoflagellés sont observées dans des conditions de carence en azote. Cette idée peut sembler contreintuitive, parce que l'ajout de nitrate plutôt que son épuisement dans le milieu est généralement associé aux floraisons d'algues. Cependant, j’ai découvert que lorsque du nitrate était ajouté à des cultures initialement carencées ou enrichies en azote, celles qui s'étaient acclimatées au stress d'azote arrivaient à survivre près de deux mois à haute densité cellulaire, alors que les cellules qui n'étaient pas acclimatées mourraient après deux semaines. En condition de carence d'azote sévère, les cellules arrivaient à survivre un peu plus de deux semaines et ce, en arrêtant leur cycle cellulaire et en diminuant leur activité photosynthétique. L’incapacité pour ces cellules carencées à synthétiser de nouveaux acides aminés dans un contexte où la photosynthèse était toujours active a mené à l’accumulation de carbone réduit sous forme de granules d’amidon et corps lipidiques. Curieusement, ces deux réserves de carbone se trouvaient à des pôles opposés de la cellule, suggérant un rôle fonctionnel à cette polarisation. La deuxième contribution de ma thèse fut d’identifier et de caractériser les premiers transporteurs de nitrate chez les dinoflagellés. J'ai découvert que Lingulodinium ne possédait que très peu de transporteurs comparativement à ce qui est observé chez les plantes et j'ai suggéré que seuls les membres de la famille des transporteurs de nitrate de haute affinité 2 (NRT2) étaient réellement impliqués dans le transport du nitrate. Le principal transporteur chez Lingulodinium était exprimé constitutivement, suggérant que l’acquisition du nitrate chez ce dinoflagellé se fondait majoritairement sur un système constitutif plutôt qu’inductible. Enfin, j'ai démontré que l'acquisition du nitrate chez Lingulodinium était régulée par la lumière et non par l'horloge circadienne, tel qu'il avait été proposé dans une étude antérieure. Finalement, j’ai utilisé une approche RNA-seq pour vérifier si certains transcrits de composantes impliquées dans le métabolisme du nitrate de Lingulodinium étaient sous contrôle circadien. Non seulement ai-je découvert qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière dans les niveaux des transcrits impliqués dans le métabolisme du nitrate, j’ai aussi constaté qu’il n’y avait aucune variation journalière pour n’importe quel ARN du transcriptome de Lingulodinium. Cette découverte a démontré que l’horloge de ce dinoflagellé n'avait pas besoin de transcription rythmique pour générer des rythmes physiologiques comme observé chez les autres eukaryotes.