Biological control of black vine weevil (Otiorhynchus sulcatus, Coleoptera: Curculionidae) by entomopathogenic bacteria and their cell-free toxic metabolites

Biocontrol agents such as Xeiwrhabduf, nemalophilci and X. nematophila ssp. bovienii and their cell-free protein toxin complexes were lethal to larvae of O. sulcatus when applied to potting compost in the absence of plants. Similarly, strawberry plants infected with 0. sulcaitfi larvae were protected from damage by applications of both cell suspensions of the bacteria and solutions of their cell-free toxic metabolites, indicating that it is the protein toxins, which are responsible for the lethal effects observed. These toxic metabolites were found more effective against 0. sulccitus larvae when treated in soil microflora. Insect mortality is increased by increasing temperature and bacterial concentration. The toxins remained pathogenic for several months when stored in potting soil either at 15 or 20°C, however, bacterial cells were not as persistent as the toxins. It is therefore suggested that these bacteria and their toxic metabolites can he applied in soil for insect pest control.

Europe’s biocidal products directive: benefits and costs in urban pest management

The European Commission’s Biocidal Products Directive (Council Directive 98/8 EC), known as the BPD, is the largest regulatory exercise ever to affect the urban pest control industry. Although focussed in the European Union its impact is global because any company selling pest control products in the EU must follow its principles. All active substances, belonging to 23 different biocidal product types, come within the Directive’s scope of regulatory control. This will eventually involve re-registration of all existing products, as well as affecting any new product that comes to the market. Some active substances, such as the rodenticides and insecticides, are already highly regulated in Europe but others, such as embalming fluids, masonry preservatives, disinfectants and repellents/attractants will come under intensive regulatory scrutiny for the first time. One of the purposes of the Directive is to offer enhanced protection for human health and the environment. The potential benefit for suppliers of pest control products is mutual recognition of regulatory product dossiers across 25 Member States of the European Union. This process, requiring harmonisation of all regulatory decision-making processes, should reduce duplicated effort and, potentially, allow manufacturers speedier access to European markets. However, the cost to industry is enormous, both in terms of the regulatory resources required to assemble BPD dossiers and the development budgets required to conduct studies to meet its new standards. The cost to regulatory authorities is also tremendous, in terms of the need to upgrade staff capabilities to meet new challenges and the volume of the work expected by the Commission when they are appointed the Rapporteur Member State (RMS) for an active substance. Users of pest control products will pay a price too. The increased regulatory costs of maintaining products in the European market are likely to be passed on, at least in part, to users. Furthermore, where the costs of meeting new regulatory requirements cannot be recouped from product sales, many well-known products may leave the market. For example, it seems that in future few rodenticides that are not anticoagulants will be available within the EU. An understanding of the BPD is essential to those who intend to place urban pest control products on the European market and may be useful to those considering the harmonisation of regulatory processes elsewhere. This paper reviews the operation of the first stages of the BPD for rodenticides, examines the potential benefits and costs of the legislation to the urban pest control industry and looks forward to the next stages of implementation involving all insecticides used in urban pest management.

A pest is a pest is a pest? The dilemma of neotropical leaf-cutting ants: Keystone taxa of natural ecosystems

Leaf-cutting ants of the genera Acromyrmex and Atta are considered the principal polyphagous pests of the Neotropics. Although some members of these genera are of economic importance, have a broad geographic distribution, and are extremely good colonizers, others are endemic and closely interact with native ecosystems. Control is generally practiced against any colony, irrespective of its taxonomic status. Indiscriminate control coupled with habitat destruction threatens endemic species with extinction, and, through habitat simplification, favors other pest species. As nests of Atta are large, having several square meters of nest surface, the endemic taxa can be easily used as environmental indicators for natural ecosystems. Likewise, the pest species can be used to detect environmental disturbance. As these ants are keystone species and easily identified by nonspecialists, efforts should be made to integrate these into viable conservation programs.

Effect of Alternaria cassiae, Pseudocercospora nigricans, and soybean (Glycine max) planting density on the biological control of sicklepod (Senna obtusifolia)

The interactions of two fungal biocontrol agents, Alternaria cassiae and Pseudocercospora nigricans, and soybean planting density on sicklepod mortality and dry weight were studied in the field over 2 yr. The experimental field was divided into three equal areas: one without soybean and two where the soybean was sown in densities of 20 and 36 seeds per meter row with a 0.95-m row spacing. The fungi were sprayed alone or in a mixture at three growth stages of sicklepod plants grown at three levels of crop interference resulting from the three soybean planting densities. The fungal treatments were: an untreated control, A. cassiae (105 spores/m2), P. nigricans (3.3 g mycelium/m2), and the mixture of these two fungi. Sicklepod was at the cotyledonary leaf, two-leaf, and four-leaf stages when treated. Alternaria cassiae was most effective in reducing both sicklepod survival and dry weight. The mixture of P. nigricans and A. cassiae was generally comparable to but not better than A. cassiae alone in killing the weed (mortality) and reducing its growth (dry weight). Soybean density did not have significant effects on the mortality or the dry weight of sicklepod. Thus, there is no advantage to combining the highly effective biocontrol agent A. cassiae with the less effective P. nigricans or with soybean interference to control sicklepod. However, the results validate the efficacy of A. cassiae by itself as a bioherbicide.

Potential of Acarophenax lacunatus (Prostigmata: Acarophenacidae) as a biological control agent of Rhyzopertha dominica (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae)

A recent report of the parasitic mite species Acarophenax lacunatus (Cross and Krantz) (Prostigmata: Acarophenacidae) attacking populations of Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) led to the present investigation. Maximum female size and average number of progeny per female mite were assessed at eight different temperatures (ranging from 20 to 41°C) and 60% r.h. using R. dominica as the host. The ability of the mite species to suppress eggs, first instar larvae, and adults of R. dominica was assessed at 30°C and 60% r.h. The largest female sizes of the mite and progeny numbers were obtained around 30°C (259 μm and 17 offspring/female respectively) with minimum values obtained at the most extreme temperatures used in this study. Mite densities of at least four individuals per 500 ml jar containing 50 adults of R. dominica, resulted in almost complete suppression of eggs, first instar larvae, and adults of the host species after 45 days. This same range of mite densities led to reductions of wheat weight losses of 15 and 25% after 45 and 60 days after infestation respectively. Acarophenax lacunatus shows good potential as a biological control agent of R. dominica.

Efficacy and total release interval of mating disruption pheromone on the control of pink bollworm - Pectinophora Gossypiella - in cotton under field conditions in Brazil

This experiment was developed in order to evaluation the efficiency of pheromone to control the pink bollworm and the total time of its release in cotton field. The experiment was installed in field conditions, in Chapadao do Sul/SP/Brazil, from January to April, 1998. The treatments consisted of 2 areas, being one of 30ha, where it was applied the pheromone and another of 10ha that was chosen as control area and did not receive pheromone. In the treated area, the laboratory synthesized sex pheromone (PB-Rope) was used thought of dispensers that allowed the slow and gradual release of the active substance. A total of 250 dispenser per hectare were evenly hand distributed in the area. The dispensers were wrapped around the plants. Both areas (treated area and untreated area) were monitored by delta trap. For evaluation of the boll damage, the treatment area was divided into 4 sub-areas. Twenty five green bolls were collected at random from each sub-area at 48 and 65 days after pheromone treatment. Bolls were cracked open by hand, and number of the bolls with symptoms of pink bollworm attacks was recorded. For evaluation of the productivity four areas were demarcated in each treatment, where all fibers and seeds harvested were weighted. Release rate of pheromone from dispenser was evaluated through of the weigh of the dispensers. Were marked and weighed in analytic scale, 20 dispensers contend the pheromone, being placed 10 dispensers under the cotton plants in treated area and other 10 dispensers in an open area. To every 15 days the dispensers were retired and weighed in analytic scale and soon after put back in the field in the same places. The results showed that only one application of mating disrupt pheromone, used in a dosage of 250 dispenser/ha, reached 80% of control for pink bollworm. the release period of pheromone from dispenser, after the application, was 120 days.

Air-assistance and low volume application to control of asian rust on soybean crop

Currently, one of factors that cause the production cost increase of soybean crop is the pesticide application. The most important disease in soybean crop is Asian rust, caused by Phakopsora pachyrhizi Sydon & P. Sydon fungus, which can cause significant loss of the production. Therefore, this work aimed at evaluation of different spraying techniques on the spray deposits and some parameters of soybean crop: grain size, weight of 1 000 seeds and the crop productivity. Two experiments were carried out in the experimental area of FCA/UNESP (Faculdade de Ciencias Agronomicas/Universidade Estadual Paulista Julio de Mesquita Filho) - Botucatu, S P, Brazil, in soybean crop, Conquista variety, in the 2007/2008 season. In the first experiment, three air levels (0, 9 and 29 km/h of the air speed generated by fan) with flat fan nozzle XR 8002 with a spray volume of 130 l/ha were compared with a rotating nozzle - using low volume oily - LVO at 40 l/ha of spray volume. The second experiment was carried out under the same conditions as the previous experiment, including a control treatment (untreated plants). The disease severity was evaluated using a diagrammatic scale with a visual evaluation of the disease on 15 leaves of each plot. The grades varied between 0.6 and 78.5% of the disease severity. The use of air assistance when compared with the rotating system nozzle did not show significant differences for spray deposits on adaxial and abaxial surface of the leaves in bottom part of the plant. The air assistance with maximum air speed (29 km/h) increased the productivity with respect of the other treatments.

Chemical control of pathogens and the physiological performance of peanut seeds

The establishment of a peanut crop may be unsatisfactory due to poor seed performance in the field and among the factors attributed to this are a reduction in seed vigor during storage and the presence of pathogens. The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of treating peanut seeds with fungicides and the effect on physiological performance and disease control during storage. In a completely random experimental design, two seed batches of the Runner IAC 886 peanut cultivar were submitted to five fungicide treatments (1 control - untreated; 2 thiram; 3 carbendazim + thiram; 4 fludioxonil + metalaxyl-m; 5 fludioxonil + mefenoxam + thiabendazole) and evaluated after zero, 30 and 60 days of storage. The seeds were stored untreated but treated before the evaluation of physiological performance from germination, vigor (first germination count and accelerated aging), field seedling emergence and seed sanitation tests. The results showed differences in batch performance potential during storage, with batch 1 being superior. The sanitation test showed that all the chemical seed treatments controlled pathogens efficiently (Aspergillus spp. and Penicillium sp.), but only thiram did not affect peanut seed performance in the laboratory evaluations.

Integrated pest management programme in hospital environment

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES)

THE CONTROL OF VERTEBRATE PROBLEM ANIMALS IN THE PROVINCE OF THE CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, REPUBLIC OF SOUTH AFRICA

The policy of the Cape Provincial Department of Nature Conservation is based on the concept of "wise management" of wildlife resources. Where crop damage is real, control measures are essential. These, however, must be adapted to the species concerned and applied only where the damage is taking place. Blanket measures which also kill many useful species must be avoided. For this reason, the control of problem animals should be vested in the agency concerned with wildlife conservation.

HAWAIIAN SUGAR CANE RAT CONTROL METHODS AND PROBLEMS

The problem of rats in our Hawaiian sugar cane fields has been with us for a long time. Early records tell of heavy damage at various times on all the islands where sugar cane is grown. Many methods were tried to control these rats. Trapping was once used as a control measure, a bounty was used for a time, gangs of dogs were trained to catch the rats as the cane was harvested. Many kinds of baits and poisons were used. All of these methods were of some value as long as labor was cheap. Our present day problem started when the labor costs started up and the sugar industry shifted to long cropping. Until World War II cane was an annual crop. After the war it was shifted to a two year crop, three years in some places. Depending on variety, location, and soil we raise 90 to 130 tons of sugar cane per acre, which produces 7 to 15 tons of sugar per acre for a two year crop. This sugar brings about $135 dollars per ton. This tonnage of cane is a thick tangle of vegetation. The cane grows erect for almost a year, as it continues to grow it bends over at the base. This allows the stalk to rest on the ground or on other stalks of cane as it continues to grow. These stalks form a tangled mat of stalks and dead leaves that may be two feet thick at the time of harvest. At the same time the leafy growing portion of the stalk will be sticking up out of the mat of cane ten feet in the air. Some of these individual stalks may be 30 feet long and still growing at the time of harvest. All this makes it very hard to get through a cane field as it is one long, prolonged stumble over and through the cane. It is in this mat of cane that our three species of rats live. Two species are familiar to most people in the pest control field. Rattus norvegicus and Rattus rattus. In the latter species we include both the black rat and the alexandrine rats, their habits seem to be the same in Hawaii. Our third rat is the Polynesian rat, Rattus exlans, locally called the Hawaiian rat. This is a small rat, the average length head to tip of tail is nine inches and the average body weight is 65 grams. It has dark brownish fur like the alexandrine rats, and a grey belly. It is found in Indonesia, on most of the islands of Oceania and in New Zealand. All three rats live in our cane fields and the brushy and forested portions of our islands. The norway and alexandrine rats are found in and around the villages and farms, the Polynesian rat is only found in the fields and waste areas. The actual amount of damage done by rats is small, but destruction they cause is large. The rats gnaw through the rind of the cane stalk and eat the soft juicy and sweet tissues inside. They will hollow out one to several nodes per stalk attacked. The effect to the cane stalk is like ringing a tree. After this attack the stalk above the chewed portion usually dies, and sometimes the lower portion too. If the rat does not eat through the stalk the cane stalk could go on living and producing sugar at a reduced rate. Generally an injured stalk does not last long. Disease and souring organisms get in the injury and kill the stalk. And if this isn't enough, some insects are attracted to the injured stalk and will sometimes bore in and kill it. An injured stalk of cane doesn't have much of a chance. A rat may only gnaw out six inches of a 30 foot stalk and the whole stalk will die. If the rat only destroyed what he ate we could ignore them but they cause the death of too much cane. This dead, dying, and souring cane cause several direct and indirect tosses. First we lose the sugar that the cane would have produced. We harvest all of our cane mechanically so we haul the dead and souring cane to the mill where we have to grind it with our good cane and the bad cane reduces the purity of the sugar juices we squeeze from the cane. Rats reduce our income and run up our overhead.

FOREST ANIMAL DAMAGE CONTROL

As a nation we have gained world recognition for our ability to utilize our resources. In forestry our greatest accomplishments have been in the mechanization of harvest methods and in improvements in forest products. The renewal of this resource has been our greatest neglect. Though the end of the 19th Century marked the beginning of the conservation movement, it was not until a half century later that the force of economics through the demands of a growing population made forest re-establishment more than just a desire. Conservation in itself is a Utopian concept which requires other motivating forces to make it a reality. In the post-war years, and as late as the early 195O's, stocked land in the Pacific Northwest could be purchased for less than the cost of planting; the economic incentive was lacking. Only with sustained yield management and increased land values was there a balance in favor of true values. With greater effort placed on forest regeneration there was an increased need for methods of reducing losses to wildlife. The history of forest wildlife damage research, therefore, parallels that of forest land management; after rather austere beginnings, development became predominantly a response to economics. It was not until 1950 that the full time of one scientist was assigned to this important activity. The development of control methods for forest animal damage is a relatively new area of research. All animal life is dependent upon plants for its existence; forest wildlife is no exception. The removal of seed and foliage of undesirable plants often benefits the land managers; only when the losses or injuries are in conflict with man's interest is there damage involved. Unfortunately, the feeding activities of wildlife and the interests of the land managers are often in conflict. Few realize the breadth, scope, and subtilities associated with forest wildlife damage problems. There are not only numerous species of animals involved, but also a myriad of conditions, each combination possessing unique facets. It is a foregone conclusion that an understanding of the conditions is essential to facilitate a solution to any given problem. Though there are numerous methods of reducing animal damage, all of which have application under some situations, in this discussion emphasis will be placed on the role of chemicals and on western problems. Because of the broadness and complexity of the problem, generalizing is necessary and only brief coverage will be possible. However, an attempt will be made to discuss the use and limitations of various control methods.

HIGHLIGHTS OF BIRD CONTROL RESEARCH IN ENGLAND, FRANCE, HOLLAND, AND GERMANY

The purpose of this paper is to present a brief review of the research being conducted in England, France, Germany, and The Netherlands on problems caused by nuisance and depredating birds. Much of the information presented has been obtained through correspondence with collaborators. In the fall of 1962, I discussed depredating bird and bird-airport problems with research workers in these countries, and also attended the meeting of the International Union of Applied Ornithology held in Frankfurt/Main. In November 1963, I attended an international symposium about the bird-airport problem, held in Nice, France. This paper will draw attention to the current research which I think will interest American investigators, but will not report every aspect of the foreign investigations. Details appear in the publications that are listed.

SELLING BIRD CONTROL

The remarks that I have prepared deal with direct contacts selling pest and bird control programs. I am going to limit my remarks to what I feel are the more important aspects of selling Bird Control. I think it is safe to say that one of the most difficult aspects of selling for most sales personnel is prospecting, that is, finding accounts to call on. Our sales personnel have to more or less come up with their own leads. They have to find out who to contact once they get there. I have found that the best prospect most of us have for selling Bird Control accounts are our present pest control accounts. Generally speaking, we try to main¬tain contact with our applicators in the field, who are in these accounts every day, asking them if there are any of their accounts that are having bird control problems. Another method of finding potential accounts, is driving around looking. It is more difficult to drive around and look for rat and/or roach problems, but generally speaking if a building or some type of business has a bird problem, it is fairly easy to locate. Another thing we can do is call on specific accounts. There are generally cer¬tain accounts that just by the manufacturing process do attract birds, for example: food plants, mills, beet plants, grain elevators, food processors, and so on. Other type operations which lend themselves to bird problems are industrial plants because of the super-structure (physical plant) that they have. Sub-stations and power plants are very attractive to birds. Some other situations that should be checked for bird problems are lumber yards and contractors' storage buildings. After deciding on a contact we get into what I call my basic four. There are four basic things that I try to impress upon our personnel to keep in mind when they go in to make a contact. The first one is the interview or actually making the contact so that you get an opportunity to have the interview, either calling for an appointment or making a "cold" call. The second one is closing for the survey. The third one is making the survey and preparing a proposal. The fourth and last one is the proposal presentation and closing of the sale. An additional item which would make a basic five is after you make the sale don't forget to follow up on the sale.

ANIMAL POPULATION ECOLOGY AND CONTROL FUNDAMENTALS

Expensive, extensive and apparently lethal control measures have been applied against many species of pest vertebrates and invertebrates for decades. In spite of this, few pests have been annihilated, and in many cases the stated goals have become progressively more modest, so that now we speak of saving foliage or a crop, rather than extermination. It is of interest to examine the reasons why animals are so difficult to exterminate, because this matter, of course, has implications for the type of control policy we pursue in the future. Also, it has implications for the problem of evaluating comparatively various resource management strategies. There are many biological mechanisms which could, in principle, enhance the performance of an animal population after control measures have been applied against it. These are of four main types: genetic, physiological, populationa1, and environmental. We are all familiar with the fact that in applying a control measure, we are, from the pest's point of view, applying intense selection pressure in favor of those individuals that may be preadapted to withstand the type of control being used. The well-known book by Brown (1958) documents, for invertebrates, a tremendous number of such cases. Presumably, vertebrates can show the same responses. Not quite so familiar is the evidence that sub-lethal doses of a lethal chemical may have a physiologically stimulating effect on population performance of the few individuals that happen to survive (Kuenen, 1958). With further research, we may find that this phenomenon occurs throughout the animal kingdom. Still less widely recognized is the fact that pest control elicits a populational homeostatic mechanism, as well as genetic and physiological homeostatic mechanisms. Many ecologists, such as Odum and Allee (1950, Slobodkin (1955), Klomp (1962) and the present author (1961, 1963) have pointed out that the curve for generation survival, or the curve for trend index as a function of last generations density is of great importance in population dynamics.