NATO : implications of European integration for allies' defense spending : report to the Chairman and Ranking Minority Member, Subcommittee on Defense, Committee on Appropriations, U.S. Senate /

"B-282890"--P. 1.

Cooperation within nato: the influence of european democracies on U.S. foreign policy

Two NATO allies, Great Britain and France, exerted greater influence on US foreign policy than most analysts assume. They did so even during the 1950s and early 1960s when the United States enjoyed undisputed economic and military supremacy in the alliance. This study hypothesizes that the British and French influence on US foreign policy is explained both by the existence of transnational and transgovernmental coalitions and by the cohesion of weak allies toward the alliance leader. Yet although both cohesion and coalitions are complementary in influencing US foreign policy, the relationship between coalitions and influence is more critical. To investigate the proposed relationships, the study relies on an analysis of three events during which both Great Britain and France challenged US policies: the Korean War, the Suez crisis, and the 1958-1963 test ban negotiations.

Contribuições para a Implementação de um Sistema de Gestão Ambiental no Depósito Munições Nato de Lisboa / Serviço de Armas Navais

A proteção do meio ambiente e a promoção de um desenvolvimento sustentável têm assumido um papel estabelecido e de crescente importância junto das organizações que, conscientes das suas fragilidades e pressionadas pela opinião pública, têm adotado sistemas voluntários de ação ambiental. A presente dissertação tem por base um estágio curricular que decorreu no período de outubro de 2013 a junho de 2014, numa Unidade Militar sob dependência da Marinha Portuguesa, o Depósito Munições Nato de Lisboa / Serviço de Armas Navais (DMNL/SAN). O estágio teve como objetivo principal a conceção e implementação de um sistema de gestão ambiental (SGA) com base no referencial internacional NP EN ISO 14001:2012. De acordo com o normativo foram definidos e implementados procedimentos e práticas de forma a dar cumprimento ao estabelecido nos requisitos - 4.1. (Requisitos Gerais), 4.2. (Política Ambiental), 4.3. (Planeamento) e 4.4. (Implementação e Operação). Assim, procedeu-se à revisão bibliográfica de conceitos subjacentes ao sistema de gestão ambiental e ao diagnóstico ambiental de referência, de modo a compreender os requisitos necessários para a conceção, desenvolvimento e implementação do SGA. Numa segunda fase foram identificados os aspetos ambientais significativos, realizado o levantamento de requisitos legais, estabelecidos objetivos e metas ambientais, desenvolvendo documentação necessária ao SGA. Para tal, foram realizadas reuniões, primeiramente de enquadramento da Unidade Militar e apresentação das instalações e atividades desenvolvidas. Ao longo do estágio foram também feitas reuniões para apresentação do trabalho desenvolvido e definição de objetivos e atividades necessárias à implementação do SGA. Na definição dos aspetos ambientais foram realizadas várias visitas às instalações nas quais houve contacto com os trabalhadores associados a cada tarefa de modo a compreender as atividades desenvolvidas e possíveis impactes. Com o objetivo de sensibilizar e contextualizar toda a guarnição, militares e civis, foram dinamizadas ações de formação e sensibilização no âmbito do desenvolvimento sustentável e gestão ambiental.O SGA do DMNL/SAN encontra-se em fase de implementação, sendo necessário proceder à realização de auditorias e revisão do sistema, bem como legalizar o registo da Unidade no portal da Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente, o qual não foi concretizado face a questões temporais e hierárquicas internas.

Clouds of Suspicion: Airspace Arrangements, Escalation, and Discord in U.S./NATO-Russian Relations

How have cooperative airspace arrangements contributed to cooperation and discord in the Euro-Atlantic region? This study analyzes the role of three sets of airspace arrangements developed by Euro-Atlantic states since the end of the Cold War—(1) cooperative aerial surveillance of military activity, (2) exchange of air situational data, and (3) joint engagement of theater air and missile threats—in political-military relations among neighbors and within the region. These arrangements provide insights into the integration of Central and Eastern European states into Western security institutions, and the current discord that centers on the conflict in Ukraine and Russia’s place in regional security. The study highlights the role of airspace incidents as contributors to conflict escalation and identifies opportunities for transparency- and confidence-building measures to improve U.S./NATO-Russian relations. The study recommends strengthening the Open Skies Treaty in order to facilitate the resolution of conflicts and improve region-wide military transparency. It notes that political-military arrangements for engaging theater air and missile threats created by NATO and Russia over the last twenty years are currently postured in a way that divides the region and inhibits mutual security. In turn, the U.S.-led Regional Airspace Initiatives that facilitated the exchange of air situational data between NATO and then-NATO-aspirants such as Poland and the Baltic states, offer a useful precedent for improving air sovereignty and promoting information sharing to reduce the fear of war among participating states. Thus, projects like NATO’s Air Situational Data Exchange and the NATO-Russia Council Cooperative Airspace Initiative—if extended to the exchange of data about military aircraft—have the potential to buttress deterrence and contribute to conflict prevention. The study concludes that documenting the evolution of airspace arrangements since the end of the Cold War contributes to understanding of the conflicting narratives put forward by Russia, the West, and the states “in-between” with respect to reasons for the current state of regional security. The long-term project of developing a zone of stable peace in the Euro-Atlantic must begin with the difficult task of building inclusive security institutions to accommodate the concerns of all regional actors.

Kuinka Nato-kortit muuttuivat jokereiksi? – kansanedustajien Nato-kuvan kehitys integraation ajastapäättäväisen päättämättömyyden kauteen

Tutkielmassa selvitetään kansanedustajien Nato-kuvan kehittymistä 1990-luvun alusta 2000-luvun ensimmäisen kymmenvuotiskauden loppuun. Pääaineistona ovat olleet viiden turvallisuus- ja puolustuspoliittisen selonteon eduskuntakeskustelujen pöytäkirjat (-95,-97,-01,-04 ja -09). Tutkielmassa esitetään, että kansanedustajien Nato-kuvaa hallitsi 1990-luvulla EU-integraation vaihe, jolloin Suomenkin suunta näytti käyvän kaikenkattavaan, myös Natoon suuntaavaan integraatioon EU:n ja Länsi-Euroopan unionin (WEU) kautta. Vuoden 2001 keskusteluissa Nato-jäsenyys sai eniten tilaa ja Euroopan puolustus näytti toteutuvan laajenevan Naton kautta. 2000-luvulla Nato-optio alkaa hallita ja padota eduskunnan Nato-keskustelua. Kansanedustajien Nato-kantojen ”ison kuvan” kannalta keskeisiä ovat erityisesti SDP:n ja Keskustan edustajat. Kokoomuksen ja Vasemmistoliiton edustajat ovat olleet johdonmukaisempia. Kokoomuksen edustajat ovat selkeimmin kannattaneet Nato-jäsenyyttä, kun taas Vasemmistoliitossa ollaan kylmän sodan jälkeen useimmin vastustettu kansainvälistä puolustuksellista yhteistyötä poislukien YK:n itse toteuttamat operaatiot. Sen sijaan SDP:n ja Keskustan edustajat tuntuivat 2000-luvun alkuvuosina ajautuneen niin sanotun optiopolitiikan kannattajiksi. Vielä 1990-luvulla keskustalaiset vierastivat optiota. 1990-luvun keskusteluissa kokoomuslaiset taas kannattivat Nato-vaihtoehdon varaamista kääntyen kriittisemmiksi optiota kohtaan 2000-luvulla. Myöhempi optiokanta on kautta puoluekentän tarkoittanut Nato-kannan pidättämistä ja vetoamista vallitsevan muotoilun toimivuuteen. Sen sijaan vuosien 2004 ja 2009 selontekojen yhteydessä erityisesti Keskustan ja SDP:n edustajien valtavirta puolusti niin oppositiossa kuin hallituksessakin Suomen muuttumatonta mahdollisuutta hakea Naton jäsenyyttä. Perimmäisen Nato-kannan panttaaminen provosoikin kysymyksen, oliko lukuisissa edustajissa sympatiaa Natoa kohtaan, jota nämä eivät vain tunnusta. Kiinnostava jatkotutkimushaaste olisi selvittää, miksi optiopolitiikka aikoinaan vakiintui. Tutkielma päätyy pohtimaan, että 1990-luvun integraatiorynnistyksen jälkeisille vuosien 2001–2004 selontekojen väliselle kaudelle ajoittui Natoon kytkeytyvä negatiivisen vaikuttamisen tiivistymä ajaen erityisesti sosiaalidemokraattiset ja keskustalaiset kansanedustajat Nato-kantansa piilottamiseen, joka siis käytännössä ilmeni option korostamisena. Samassa vaiheessa esille nousee myös ns. Irak Gaten rooli vaikuttajana suomalaisessa Nato-keskustelussa, jonka pohdinta on tähän mennessä ollut pitkälti Pekka Ervastin Irak-Gate-kirjan (2004) maininnan varassa. Tutkielma päätyy pohtimaan vuosien 2001–2004 välillä tapahtuneen Nato-vaikuttamisen ja yhä nykyisenkin Nato-keskustelun valtavirran kumpuavan puolue- ja vaalitaktisista sisäpoliittisista syistä eikä Suomen kansainvälisen politiikan tai turvallisuuspolitiikan lähtökohdista.

A NATO no Século XXI – Perspetivas Políticas na Era da Globalização

Num mundo definido pela Globalização, Estados e Organizações Internacionais vêm-se confrontados com um novo conjunto de ameaças e desafios caracterizado pela sua crescente volatilidade e complexidade. A multidimensionalidade característica deste fenómeno reuniu as condições ideias para fomentar a prosperidade económica, o desenvolvimento tecnológico e a promoção da paz. Contudo, simultaneamente às esperanças de progresso juntaram-se diversas ameaças de caráter global e com importantes implicações securitárias. A 4 de Abril de 1949, quando os membros fundadores da NATO assinaram o Tratado do Atlântico Norte, os mesmos declaram-se determinados a unir esforços para a defesa coletiva assim como para a preservação da paz e da segurança. No entanto, enquanto na altura a principal preocupação consistia num ataque por parte de uma potência hostil, atualmente as ameaças que se apresentam alteraram-se profundamente. Nos dias de hoje, os muitos e distintos aspetos da Globalização combinam-se de forma a aumentar a perigosidade das ameaças transnacionais, que variam do terrorismo à proliferação de armas de destruição maciça, passando por ciberataques, conflitos regionais com consequências à escala global, entre outros. Por outro lado, as ameaças de natureza externa são muitas vezes acompanhadas por desafios de caráter interno. Neste contexto, o alargamento da NATO constitui um fenómeno que desperta diversos sentimentos, constituindo um dos alvos de estudo da presente dissertação académica. Em adição, reconhecem-se as discrepâncias relativamente aos contributos individuais de cada membro da Aliança, sendo que as desigualdades observadas neste âmbito constituem desafios urgentes e com potencial para debilitar a coesão e a solidariedade dos Estados membros. Ao longo da presente investigação são identificados diversas ameaças, riscos e desafios num cenário de Globalização para o século XXI. No entanto, o caráter transnacional deste fenómeno não permite a limitação da atuação da NATO na região Euro-Atlântica, ao mesmo tempo que torna oportuno a adoção de políticas promotoras da união e da indivisibilidade dos seus membros. viii Neste sentido, constituindo a maior e mais duradoura aliança políticomilitar do mundo, a Aliança Atlântica encontra-se perante um cenário onde a combinação de ameaças externas e divergências internas ameaçam a segurança dos seus membros e o seu futuro, revestindo-se de importância manter um olhar crítico sobre a NATO e o mundo.

Venäjä takaraivossa – Nato-kysymys eduskunnan ulko- ja turvallisuuspoliittisissa keskusteluissa vaalikaudella 2011–2015

Kylmän sodan päätyttyä Suomelle avautui uusia läntisiä yhteistyönäkymiä. Suomi liittyi sotilaallisesti liittoutumattomana, muttei puolueettomana maana Euroopan unioniin 1.1.1995 ja ryhtyi myös yhteistyöhön Pohjois-Atlantin puolustusliitto Naton kanssa. Yli kaksikymmentävuotisen aktiivisen rauhankumppanuuden aikana Suomi on aina mennyt jonkinlaisella kontribuutiolla mukaan uusiin Naton yhteistyömuotoihin. Turvatakuut tuovaa jäsenyyttä ei ole katsottu aiheelliseksi hakea, vaan Suomi on linjannut varaavansa mahdollisuuden hakea jäsenyyttä tarpeen niin vaatiessa. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää miten Suomen poliittiset päätöksentekijät, kansanedustajat ja heidän edustamansa puolueet, ovat eduskunnassa vaalikaudella 2011–2015 arvioineet Suomen turvallisuuspoliittista perusratkaisua – liittoutua vai ei. Mitkä ovat olleet koko liittoutumiskeskustelun keskeiset diskurssit eli mistä on keskusteltu, kun on keskusteltu? Millä argumenteilla sotilasliittoon liittymistä, sen ulkopuolella pysyttäytymistä sekä virallisen ns. Nato-option jatkoa kannattaneet ovat perustelleet kantojaan? Tutkimus tarkastelee myös miten Venäjän ja lännen, Naton ja EU:n, suhteiden kiristyminen on vaikuttanut liittoutumisnäkemyksiin. Muuttuivatko päättäjien perustelut aiemmille kannoilleen Ukrainan myötä vai muuttuivatko kannat? Primaariaineistona ovat vaalikaudella käydyt seitsemän ulko-, turvallisuus- ja puolustuspolitiikkaan keskittynyttä täysistuntokeskustelua. Yli 600 puheenvuoron analysoinnissa on sovellettu aineistolähtöistä lähestymistapaa ja sisällönanalyysiä. Keskusteluaineiston perusteella ulkoisen toimintaympäristön muuttujista keskeisesti näkemyksiin liittoutumisesta ovat vaikuttaneet erilaiset käsitykset siitä, 1) millaiseksi Euroopan ja Itämeren alueen yleinen turvallisuuskehitys sekä erityisesti Venäjän roolin ja länsisuhteen kehitys arvioidaan (Venäjä-diskurssi), ja 2) minkälainen merkitys on pohjoismaisen ja erityisesti Ruotsin kanssa tehtävän puolustusyhteistyön tiivistämisellä (Ruotsi-diskurssi). Myös arviot siitä, 3) millaisia kehitysnäkymiä on EU:n yhteisessä puolustusulottuvuudessa (EU-diskurssi), ja 4) miten Naton rooli sekä kumppanuus kehittyvät (Nato-kumppanuus -diskurssi) ovat vaikuttaneet merkittävästi näkemyksiin. Keskeisin tutkimuspäätelmä on, että lähes kaikki Nato-keskustelun argumentit ja keskusteluteemat kiertyvät lopulta Venäjään. Liittoutumiskeskustelu on siis keskustelua, jossa Suomen valintoja arvioidaan joko ääneen tai verhottuna suhteessa oletettuihin Venäjän pyrkimyksiin, motiiveihin ja mahdollisiin reaktioihin. Ukrainan kriisin myötä vakautta ja jatkuvuutta korostava pragmaattinen "geopoliittinen realismi" nousi keskustelussa yhä hallitsevammaksi näkökulmaksi, ohittaen kansainvälisen yhteisön normistoa ja moraalia korostavan "arvoperustaisen yhteisöllisyyden".

A parceria União Europeia-NATO : a persistência de uma relação complexa

O artigo analisa as dificuldades estruturais e políticas que continuam a condicionar a cooperação multilateral política e securitária da Parceria Estratégica entre a União Europeia (UE) e a Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte (NATO) no espaço euro-atlântico e na gestão internacional de crises. A complexa relação entre a UE e a NATO no que se refere a operações internacionais, interoperabilidade e a alocação de capacidades dos Estados-membros é explicada pela fraca articulação institucional e política entre as duas instituições, o que dificulta a criação de sinergias operacionais duradouras para um futuro quadro de cooperação institucional e operacionalmente eficaz, principalmente na vizinhança europeia.

More and more lawyers but still no judges

This paper discusses some parallels and contrasts between the legal roads to war and suggest that the case is stronger than ever for adjudication of the matter before an independent tribunal where the competing views can be tested.

China and the "Responsibility to Protect" (R2P) : the implications of the Libyan intervention

The emerging principle of a “responsibility to protect” (R2P) presents a direct challenge to China's traditional emphasis on the twin principles of non-intervention in the domestic affairs of other states and non-use of military force. This paper considers the evolution of China‟s relationship with R2P over the past ten years. In particular, it examines how China engaged with R2P during the recent Libyan crisis, and considers what impact this conflict may have first, on Chinese attitudes to R2P, and second, on the future development and implementation of the doctrine itself. This paper argues that China‟s decision to allow the passage of Security Council resolution 1973, authorising force in Libya, was shaped by an unusual set of pragmatic considerations, and should not be viewed as evidence of a dramatic shift in Chinese attitudes towards R2P. More broadly, controversy over the scope of NATO's military action in Libya has raised questions about R2P‟s legitimacy, which has contributed to a lack of timely international action in Syria and Yemen. In the short term at least, this post-Libya backlash against R2P is likely to constrain the Security Council‟s ability to respond decisively to other civilian protection situations.

Use of cadavers and anthropometric test devices (ATDs) for assessing lower limb injury outcome from under‐vehicle explosions

Lower extremities are particularly susceptible to injury in an under‐vehicle explosion. Operational fitness of military vehicles is assessed through anthropometric test devices (ATDs) in full‐scale blast tests. The aim of this study was to compare the response between the Hybrid‐III ATD, the MiL‐Lx ATD and cadavers in our traumatic injury simulator, which is able to replicate the response of the vehicle floor in an under‐vehicle explosion. All specimens were fitted with a combat boot and tested on our traumatic injury simulator in a seated position. The load recorded in the ATDs was above the tolerance levels recommended by NATO in all tests; no injuries were observed in any of the 3 cadaveric specimens. The Hybrid‐III produced higher peak forces than the MiL‐Lx. The time to peak strain in the calcaneus of the cadavers was similar to the time to peak force in the ATDs. Maximum compression of the sole of the combat boot was similar for cadavers and MiL‐Lx, but significantly greater for the Hybrid‐III. These results suggest that the MiL‐Lx has a more biofidelic response to under‐vehicle explosive events compared to the Hybrid‐III. Therefore, it is recommended that mitigation strategies are assessed using the MiL‐Lx surrogate and not the Hybrid‐III.

SCRAMSPACE : Radical-Farming Scramjet for access to space

Scramjet-based launch systems offer considerable promise for safe, reliable and economical access to space. A general Scramjets introduction is first provided, followed by the specifics of Australian Scramjet Research and the recent progress in inlet-injection radical-farming scramjets as part of the SCRAMSPACE program. Through both flight and ground tests, leveraging Australias world leadership in scramjet R&D, the SCRAMSPACE project is designed to answer key scientific and technological questions and build an industry-ready talent pool for a future Australian space industry. An extensive descriptions of all phases of the development of the SCRAMSPACE I scramjet-powered free-flight experiment are described in these lecture notes.

Book review : "Artificial Hells: participatory art and the politics of spectatorship by Claire Bishop"

In the years since Nicolas Bourriaud’s Relational Aesthetics (1998) was published, a plethora of books (Shannon Jackson’s Social Works: Performing Art, Supporting Publics [2011], Nato Thompson’s Living as Form: Socially Engaged Art from 1991–2011 [2011], Grant Kester’s Conversation Pieces: Community and Communication in Modern Art [2004], Pablo Helguera’s Education for Socially Engaged Art: A Material and Techniques Handbook [2011]), conferences and articles have surfaced creating a rich and textured discourse that has responded to, critiqued and reconfigured the proposed social utopias of Bourriaud’s aesthetics. As a touchstone for this emerging discourse, Relational Aesthetics outlines in a contemporary context the plethora of social and process-based art forms that took as their medium the ‘social’. It is, however, Clare Bishop’s book Artificial Hells: Participatory Art and the Politics of Spectatorship (Verso), that offers a deeper art historical and theoretically considered rendering of this growing and complicated form of art, and forms a central body of work in this broad constellation of writings about participatory art, or social practice art/socially engaged art (SEA), as it is now commonly known...

Ranskan rooli ja asema läntisessä liittoutumassa neljännen ja viidennen tasavallan vaihtumakohdassa 1956-1958

The study discusses the position of France as the United States’ ally in NATO in 1956-1958. The concrete position of France and the role that it was envisioned to have are being treated from the point of view of three participants of the Cold War: France, the United States and the Soviet Union. How did these different parties perceive the question and did these views change when the French Fourth Republic turned into the Fifth in 1958? The study is based on published French and American documents of Foreign Affairs. Because of problems with accessibility to the Soviet archival sources, the study uses reports on France-NATO relations of Pravda newspaper, the official organ of the Communist Party of the USSR, to provide information about how the Soviet side saw the question. Due to the nature and use of source material, and the chronological structure of the work, the study belongs methodologically to the research field of History of International Relations. As distinct from political scientists’ field of research, more prone to theorize, the study is characteristically a historical research, a work based on qualitative method and original sources that aims at creating a coherent narrative of the views expressed during the period covered by the study. France’s road to a full membership of NATO is being treated on the basis of research literature, after which discussions about France’s position in the Western Alliance are being chronologically traced for the period of last years of the Fourth Republic and the immediate months of coming back to power of Charles de Gaulle. Right from the spring of 1956 there can be seen aspirations of France, on one hand, to maintain her freedom of action inside the Western Alliance and, on the other, to widen the dialogue between the allies. The decision on France’s own nuclear deterrent was made already during the Fourth Republic, when it was thought to become part of NATO’s common defence. This was to change with de Gaulle. The USA felt that France still fancied herself as a great power and that she could not participate in full in NATO’s common defence because of her colonies. The Soviet Union saw the concrete position of France in the Alliance as in complete dependence on the USA, but her desired role was expressed largely in “Gaullist” terms. The expressions used by the General and the Soviet propaganda were close to each other, but the Soviet Union could not support de Gaulle without endangering the position of the French Communist Party. Between the Fourth and Fifth Republics no great rupture in content took place concerning the views of France’s role and position in the Western Alliance. The questions posed by de Gaulle had been expressed during the whole period of Fourth Republic’s existence. Instead, along with the General the weight and rhetoric of these questions saw a great change. Already in the early phase the Americans saw it possible that with de Gaulle, France would try to change her role. The rupture took place in the form of expression, rather than in its content.