Compendium of best practices on motorcycle and scooter safety

Throughout the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and across the world, riders and passengers of motorcycles and scooters are among the most vulnerable road users. Such vulnerability is especially pertinent for nations that more often use motorcycles and scooters as a method of transportation. In developing effective countermeasures to reduce motorcycle and scooter death and injury across multiple regions, consideration is required of various situational and socio-cultural factors that vary across APEC economies. This compendium aims to facilitate implementation of best practice countermeasures to improve motorcycle safety in APEC member economies.

Survey of motorcycle and scooter safety for Project : Compendium of Best Practices on Motorcycle and Scooter Safety

Throughout the Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) and across the world, riders and passengers of motorcycles and scooters are among the most vulnerable road users. There is considerably greater likelihood of death or injury from use of these vehicles compared with other motor vehicles. Such vulnerability is especially pertinent for economies that more often use motorcycles and scooters as a method of transportation. In developing effective countermeasures to reduce motorcycle and scooter death and injury across multiple regions consideration is required of various situational and socio-cultural factors that vary across APEC economies. The study presented here sought to understand important motorcycle and scooter safety issues across APEC economies and any current barriers that might exist in implementing potentially effective countermeasures. This is the first stage of a wider project which also includes a literature review and ultimately the production of a compendium to facilitate implementation of best practice countermeasures.

A Review of potential countermeasures for motorcycle and scooter safety practices across APEC for project : Compendium of Best Practices on Motorcycle and Scooter Safety

Motorcyclists and scooter riders are among the most vulnerable road users, across APEC. This report assesses the potential road safety measures that can be used to address these issues and selects measures that could feasibly and effectively be implemented across the Asia Pacific Economic Communities (APEC). The scope of the report is confined to on-road motorcycle riding. While the numbers of injuries resulting from off-road riding (including as part of farm work) are likely to be substantial based on data from other states, many of the issues and measures to reduce trauma in off-road riding would be quite different. A previous report described important motorcycle and scooter safety issues across APEC economies and any current barriers that might exist in implementing potentially effective countermeasures.

Older drivers' crashes in Queensland, Australia

Background: The growing proportion of older adults in Australia is predicted to comprise 23% of the population by 2030. Accordingly, an increasing number of older drivers and fatal crashes of these drivers could also be expected. While the cognitive and physiological limitations of ageing and their road safety implications have been widely documented, research has generally considered older drivers as a homogeneous group. Knowledge of age-related crash trends within the older driver group itself is currently limited. Objective: The aim of this research was to identify age-related differences in serious road crashes of older drivers. This was achieved by comparing crash characteristics between older and younger drivers and between sub-groups of older drivers. Particular attention was paid to serious crashes (crashes resulting in hospitalisation and fatalities) as they place the greatest burden on the Australian health system. Method: Using Queensland Crash data, a total of 191,709 crashes of all-aged drivers (17–80+) over a 9-year period were analysed. Crash patterns of drivers’ aged 17–24, 25–39, 40–49, 50–59, 60–69, 70–79 and 80+ were compared in terms of crash severity (e.g., fatal), at fault levels, traffic control measures (e.g., stop signs) and road features (e.g., intersections). Crashes of older driver sub-groups (60–69, 70–79, 80+) were also compared to those of middle-aged drivers (40–49 and 50–59 combined, who were identified as the safest driving cohort) with respect to crash-related traffic control features and other factors (e.g., speed). Confounding factors including speed and crash nature (e.g., sideswipe) were controlled for. Results and discussion: Results indicated that patterns of serious crashes, as a function of crash severity, at-fault levels, road conditions and traffic control measures, differed significantly between age groups. As a group, older drivers (60+) represented the greatest proportion of crashes resulting in fatalities and hospitalisation, as well as those involving uncontrolled intersections and failure to give way. The opposite was found for middle-aged drivers, although they had the highest proportion of alcohol and speed-related crashes when compared to older drivers. Among all older drivers, those aged 60–69 were least likely to be involved in or the cause of crashes, but most likely to crash at interchanges and as a result of driving while fatigued or after consuming alcohol. Drivers aged 70–79 represented a mid-range level of crash involvement and culpability, and were most likely to crash at stop and give way signs. Drivers aged 80 years and beyond were most likely to be seriously injured or killed in, and at-fault for, crashes, and had the greatest number of crashes at both conventional and circular intersections. Overall, our findings highlight the heterogeneity of older drivers’ crash patterns and suggest that age-related differences must be considered in measures designed to improve older driver safety.

Under-reporting of road crashes in Pakistan and the role of fate

Objective: Comprehensive, accurate information about road crashes and related trauma is a prerequisite for identification and control of risk factors as well as for identifying faults within the broader road safety system. Quality data and appropriate crash investigation are critical in reducing the road toll that is rapidly growing in much of the developing world, including Pakistan. This qualitative research explored the involvement of social and cultural factors (in particular, fatalism) in risky road use in Pakistan. The findings highlight a significant issue, previously unreported in the road safety literature, namely, the link between fatalistic beliefs and inaccurate reporting of road crashes. Method: Thirty interviews (one-to one) were conducted by the first author with police officers, drivers, policy makers and religious orators in three Pakistani cities. Findings: Evidence emerged of a strong link between fatalism and the under-reporting of road crashes. In many cases, crashes and related road trauma appear to go unreported because a crash is considered to be one’s fate and, therefore, beyond personal control. Fate was also implicated in the practice of reconciliation between parties after a crash without police involvement and the seeking and granting of pardon for a road death. Conclusions: These issues represent additional factors that can contribute to under-reporting of crashes and associated trauma. Together, they highlight complications involved in establishing the true cost of road trauma in a country such as Pakistan and the difficulties faced when attempting to promote scientifically-based road safety information to counteract faith-based beliefs.

Performance of a cognitive, but not visual, secondary task interacts with alcohol-induced balance impairment in novice and experienced motorcycle riders

The appropriateness of applying drink driving legislation to motorcycle riding has been questioned as there may be fundamental differences in the effects of alcohol on driving and motorcycling. It has been suggested that alcohol may redirect riders’ focus from higher-order cognitive skills such as cornering, judgement and hazard perception, to more physical skills such as maintaining balance. To test this hypothesis, the effects of low doses of alcohol on balance ability were investigated in a laboratory setting. The static balance of twenty experienced and twenty novice riders was measured while they performed either no secondary task, a visual (search) task, or a cognitive (arithmetic) task following the administration of alcohol (0%, 0.02%, and 0.05% BAC). Subjective ratings of intoxication and balance impairment increased in a dose-dependent manner in both novice and experienced motorcycle riders, while a BAC of 0.05%, but not 0.02%, was associated with impairments in static balance ability. This balance impairment was exacerbated when riders performed a cognitive, but not a visual, secondary task. Likewise, 0.05% BAC was associated with impairments in novice and experienced riders’ performance of a cognitive, but not a visual, secondary task, suggesting that interactive processes underlie balance and cognitive task performance. There were no observed differences between novice vs. experienced riders on static balance and secondary task performance, either alone or in combination. Implications for road safety and future ‘drink riding’ policy considerations are discussed.

Impairment of simulated motorcycle riding performance under low dose alcohol

Crash statistics that include the blood alcohol concentration (BAC) of vehicle operators reveal that crash involved motorcyclists are over represented at low BACs (e.g., ≤0.05%). This riding simulator study compared riding performance and hazard response under three low dose alcohol conditions (sober, 0.02% BAC, 0.05% BAC). Forty participants (20 novice, 20 experienced) completed simulated rides in urban and rural scenarios while responding to a safety-critical peripheral detection task (PDT). Results showed a significant increase in the standard deviation of lateral position in the urban scenario and PDT reaction time in the rural scenario under 0.05% BAC compared with zero alcohol. Participants were most likely to collide with an unexpected pedestrian in the urban scenario at 0.02% BAC, with novice participants at a greater relative risk than experienced riders. Novices chose to ride faster than experienced participants in the rural scenario regardless of BAC. Not all results were significant, emphasising the complex situation of the effects of low dose BAC on riding performance, which needs further research. The results of this simulator study provide some support for a legal BAC for motorcyclists below 0.05%.

Why are pedestrian crashes so different in developing countries? A review of relevant factors in relation to their impact in Ethiopia

Much is known about pedestrian behaviour and crash risk in developed countries. In contrast, the literature on pedestrian crash risk in developing countries reveals wide gaps in knowledge and understanding, and a comprehensive assessment is lacking. In particular, pedestrian behaviour in developing countries is fundamentally different in comparison to developed countries, and is influenced by a variety of less well understood contributing factors, leading to difficulty in modelling and predicting pedestrian crash risk and in turn identifying effective safety countermeasures. This paper provides a comprehensive synthesis of the factors known to influence pedestrian crash risk in developing countries, then focuses on Ethiopia as a specific example. The paper identifies where critical gaps in knowledge exist regarding pedestrian crash risk and associated behaviour in developing countries--a set of knowledge gaps which collectively are significant. The paper concludes by articulating a critical research path moving forward, with the aim to achieve an improved understanding of developing country pedestrian crash risk, and an ultimate goal of identifying effective pedestrian safety countermeasures suited to the unique challenges faced by transport system managers in developing countries.

Characteristics of police-reported road traffic crashes in Ethiopia over a six year period

Ethiopia has one of Africa’s fastest growing non-oil producing economies and an increasing level of motorisation (AfDB, OECD, UNDP, & UNECA, 2012). This rapidly increasing mobility has created some unique road safety concerns; however there is scant published information and related commentary (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, 2009). The objective of this paper is to quantify police-reported traffic crashes in Ethiopia and characterise the existing state of road safety. Six years (July 2005 - June 2011) of police-reported crash data were analysed, consisting of 12,140 fatal and 29,454 injury crashes on the country’s road network. The 12,140 fatal crashes involved 1,070 drivers, 5,702 passengers, and 7,770 pedestrians, totalling 14,542 fatalities, an average of 1.2 road user fatalities per crash. An important and glaring trend that emerges is that more than half of the fatalities in Ethiopia involve pedestrians. The majority of the crashes occur during daytime hours, involve males, and involve persons in the 18-50 age group—Ethiopia’s active workforce. Crashes frequently occur in mid blocks or roadways. The predominant collision between motor vehicles and pedestrians was a rollover on a road tangent section. Failing to observe the priority of pedestrians and speeding were the major causes of crashes attributed by police. Trucks and minibus taxis were involved in the majority of crashes, while automobiles (small vehicles) were less involved in crashes relative to other vehicle types, partially because small vehicles tend to be driven fewer kilometres per annum. These data illustrate and justify a high priority to identify and implement effective programs, policies, and countermeasures focused on reducing pedestrian crashes.

Injury severity of pedestrian crashes in Singapore

Singapore is a highly urbanized city-state country where walking is an important mode of travel. Pedestrians form about 25% of road fatalities every year, making them one of the most vulnerable road user groups in Singapore. Engineering measures like provision of overhead pedestrian crossings and raised zebra crossings tend to address pedestrian safety in general, but there may be occasions where pedestrians are particularly vulnerable so that targeted interventions are more appropriate. The objective of this study is to identify factors and situations that affect the injury severity of pedestrians involved in traffic crashes. Six years of crash data from 2003 to 2008 containing around four thousands pedestrian crashes at roadway segments were analyzed. Injury severity of pedestrians—recorded as slight injury, major injury and fatal—were modeled as a function of roadway characteristics, traffic features, environmental factors and pedestrian demographics by an ordered probit model. Results suggest that the injury severity of pedestrians involved in crashes during night time is higher indicating that pedestrian visibility during night is a key issue in pedestrian safety. The likelihood of fatal or serious injuries is higher for crashes on roads with high speed limit, center and median lane of multi-lane roads, school zones, roads with two-way divided traffic type, and when pedestrians cross the roads. Elderly pedestrians appear to be involved in fatal and serious injury crashes more when they attempt to cross the road without using nearby crossing facilities. Specific countermeasures are recommended based on the findings of this study.

Efficacy of proxy definitions for identification of fatigue/sleep-related crashes : an Australian evaluation

Fatigue/sleepiness is recognised as an important contributory factor in fatal and serious injury road traffic incidents (RTIs), however, identifying fatigue/sleepiness as a causal factor remains an uncertain science. Within Australia attending police officers at a RTI report the causal factors; one option is fatigue/sleepiness. In some Australian jurisdictions police incident databases are subject to post hoc analysis using a proxy definition for fatigue/sleepiness. This secondary analysis identifies further RTIs caused by fatigue/sleepiness not initially identified by attending officers. The current study investigates the efficacy of such proxy definitions for attributing fatigue/sleepiness as a RTI causal factor. Over 1600 Australian drivers were surveyed regarding their experience and involvement in fatigue/sleep-related RTIs and near-misses during the past five years. Driving while fatigued/sleepy had been experienced by the majority of participants (66.0% of participants). Fatigue/sleep-related near misses were reported by 19.1% of participants, with 2.4% being involved in a fatigue/sleep-related RTI. Examination of the characteristics for the most recent event (either a near miss or crash) found that the largest proportion of incidents (28.0%) occurred when commuting to or from work, followed by social activities (25.1%), holiday travel (19.8%), or for work purposes (10.1%). The fatigue/sleep related RTI and near-miss experience of a representative sample of Australian drivers does not reflect the proxy definitions used for fatigue/sleepiness identification. In particular those RTIs that occur in urban areas and at slow speeds may not be identified. While important to have a strategy for identifying fatigue/sleepiness related RTIs proxy measures appear best suited to identifying specific subsets of such RTIs.

Road crashes and long term disabilities : Implications for policy and its implementation in Cambodia

The number of road crashes leading to disabilities is increasing alarmingly and constitutes a significant public health problem in many countries. So far, very few studies have been conducted to explore the impacts on persons with disabilities due to road crashes, and their families. This gap in the literature is especially large for low income countries such as Cambodia. This review explored relevant publications to provide background on persons in Cambodia with disabilities due to road crashes and their families. The review adds to the limited knowledge base in this area and has the potential to provide information on contextual issues relevant to the experience of disability in other developing countries, such as poverty, stigma and lack of resources. The findings of this review form the first part of a PhD study that will contribute to the development of informed policy change leading towards a safer system for all road users, including persons with disabilities.

Alcohol-related driving offences, crashes, and traffic policing strategies in Zhejiang Province, China

Context Alcohol-related traffic offences and associated trauma have attracted attention in China in recent years, culminating in changes to national legislation in May 2011. Harsher penalties were introduced, particularly for offences where blood alcohol concentration (BAC) levels above 80mg/100mL are recorded. Deemed to be drunk under the law, this is now a criminal offence attracting penalties including large monetary fines, licence suspension for 5 years and imprisonment. Objective This paper outlines key statistics about alcohol-related road trauma in Zhejiang Province and strategies used to combat drink- and drunk-driving. Key Outcomes Zhejiang Province, in China’s south east, has a population of approximately 54, 426,000; 22.36% hold a driving licence. Rapid motorisation is occurring there. In 2011, 1,383,318 new licences were issued, representing a 16.78% increase from the previous year. In 2012, there were a total of 65,000 police officers throughout the Province, 12,307 of whom (18.9%) were traffic police. Responsibility for conducting alcohol testing is the responsibility of all traffic police. The number of alcohol breath tests conducted per year was not available. However, traffic police are actively enforcing alcohol-related laws. In 2011, 89,228 drivers were charged with drink-driving (DUI;20-80mg/100 mL) and 10,014 with the more serious drunk-driving offence (DWI;>80mg/100mL) (Zhejiang Traffic Management Department, 2012). These numbers decreased from the previous year (221,262 and 26,390 respectively). For all crashes recorded in 2011 (n=20,176), 2% involved alcohol-impaired road users. Information on the role of alcohol in crashes from previous years was not available. Discussion Various strategies are employed to detect alcohol-impaired drivers including: targeting vehicles from hotels/restaurants; using sense of smell to screen drivers for further testing; passive alcohol sensors to test drivers; and blood tests for crash-involved drivers where a fatality occurred. Although resources to promote road safety are limited, various government initiatives promote awareness of the dangers of alcohol-related driving and more are needed in future.

Visibility-related characteristics of crashes involving bicyclists and motor vehicles – Responses from an online questionnaire study

Bicyclists are among the most vulnerable of road users, with high fatal crash rates. Although visibility aids have been widely advocated to help prevent bicycle-vehicle conflicts, to date no study has investigated, among crash-involved cyclists, the kind of visibility aids they were using at the time of the crash. This study undertook a detailed investigation of visibility factors involved in bicyclist-motor-vehicle crashes. We surveyed 184 bicyclists (predominantly from Australia via internet cycling forums) who had been involved in motor vehicle collisions regarding the perceived cause of the collision, ambient weather and general visibility, as well as the clothing and bicycle lights used by the bicyclist. Over a third of the crashes occurred in low light levels (dawn, dusk or night-time), which is disproportionate given that only a small proportion of bicyclists typically ride at these times. Importantly, 19% of these bicyclists reported not using bicycle lights at the time of the crash, and only 34% were wearing reflective clothing. Only two participants (of 184) nominated bicyclist visibility as the cause of the crash: 61% attributed the crash to driver inattention. These findings demonstrate that crash-involved bicyclists tend to under-rate and under-utilise visibility aids as a means of improving their safety.

The role of sleepiness, sleep disorders, and the work environment on heavy-vehicle crashes in 2 Australian states

Heavy-vehicle driving involves a challenging work environment and a high crash rate. We investigated the associations of sleepiness, sleep disorders, and work environment (including truck characteristics) with the risk of crashing between 2008 and 2011 in the Australian states of New South Wales and Western Australia. We conducted a case-control study of 530 heavy-vehicle drivers who had recently crashed and 517 heavy-vehicle drivers who had not. Drivers' crash histories, truck details, driving schedules, payment rates, sleep patterns, and measures of health were collected. Subjects wore a nasal flow monitor for 1 night to assess for obstructive sleep apnea. Driving schedules that included the period between midnight and 5:59 am were associated with increased likelihood of crashing (odds ratio = 3.42, 95% confidence interval: 2.04, 5.74), as were having an empty load (odds ratio = 2.61, 95% confidence interval: 1.72, 3.97) and being a less experienced driver (odds ratio = 3.25, 95% confidence interval: 2.37, 4.46). Not taking regular breaks and the lack of vehicle safety devices were also associated with increased crash risk. Despite the high prevalence of obstructive sleep apnea, it was not associated with the risk of a heavy-vehicle nonfatal, nonsevere crash. Scheduling of driving to avoid midnight-to-dawn driving and the use of more frequent rest breaks are likely to reduce the risk of heavy-vehicle nonfatal, nonsevere crashes by 2–3 times.