FOXC2 and NFATc1 control formation and maturation of collecting lymphatic vessels

The mechanisms of blood vessel maturation into distinct parts of the blood vasculature such as arteries, veins, and capillaries have been the subject of intense investigation over recent years. In contrast, our knowledge of lymphatic vessel maturation is still fragmentary. In this study, we provide a molecular and morphological characterization of the major steps in the maturation of the primary lymphatic capillary plexus into collecting lymphatic vessels during development and show that forkhead transcription factor Foxc2 controls this process. We further identify transcription factor NFATc1 as a novel regulator of lymphatic development and describe a previously unsuspected link between NFATc1 and Foxc2 in the regulation of lymphatic maturation. We also provide a genome-wide map of FOXC2-binding sites in lymphatic endothelial cells, identify a novel consensus FOXC2 sequence, and show that NFATc1 physically interacts with FOXC2-binding enhancers. These data provide novel insights into the molecular program of lymphatic vascular specification and suggest that FOXC2 and NFATc1 are potential targets for therapeutic intervention.

Premature replacement of mu with alpha immunoglobulin chains impairs lymphopoiesis and mucosal homing but promotes plasma cell maturation.

Sequentially along B cell differentiation, the different classes of membrane Ig heavy chains associate with the Ig alpha/Ig beta heterodimer within the B cell receptor (BCR). Whether each Ig class conveys specific signals adapted to the corresponding differentiation stage remains debated. We investigated the impact of the forced expression of an IgA-class receptor throughout murine B cell differentiation by knocking in the human C alpha Ig gene in place of the S mu region. Despite expression of a functional BCR, homozygous mutant mice showed a partial developmental blockade at the pro-B/pre-BI and large pre-BII cell stages, with decreased numbers of small pre-BII cells. Beyond this stage, peripheral B cell compartments of reduced size developed and allowed specific antibody responses, whereas mature cells showed constitutive activation and a strong commitment to plasma cell differentiation. Secreted IgA correctly assembled into polymers, associated with the murine J chain, and was transported into secretions. In heterozygous mutants, cells expressing the IgA allele competed poorly with those expressing IgM from the wild-type allele and were almost undetectable among peripheral B lymphocytes, notably in gut-associated lymphoid tissues. Our data indicate that the IgM BCR is more efficient in driving early B cell education and in mucosal site targeting, whereas the IgA BCR appears particularly suited to promoting activation and differentiation of effector plasma cells.

Developmentally regulated extinction of Ly-49 receptor expression permits maturation and selection of NK1.1+ T cells.

Clonally distributed inhibitory receptors negatively regulate natural killer (NK) cell function via specific interactions with allelic forms of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecules. In the mouse, the Ly-49 family of inhibitory receptors is found not only on NK cells but also on a minor (NK1.1+) T cell subset. Using Ly-49 transgenic mice, we show here that the development of NK1.1+ T cells, in contrast to NK or conventional T cells, is impaired when their Ly-49 receptors engage self-MHC class I molecules. Impaired NK1.1+ T cell development in transgenic mice is associated with a failure to select the appropriate CD1-reactive T cell receptor repertoire. In normal mice, NK1.1+ T cell maturation is accompanied by extinction of Ly-49 receptor expression. Collectively, our data imply that developmentally regulated extinction of inhibitory MHC-specific receptors is required for normal NK1.1+ T cell maturation and selection.

Species selectivity of mixed-lineage leukemia/trithorax and HCF proteolytic maturation pathways.

Site-specific proteolytic processing plays important roles in the regulation of cellular activities. The histone modification activity of the human trithorax group mixed-lineage leukemia (MLL) protein and the cell cycle regulatory activity of the cell proliferation factor herpes simplex virus host cell factor 1 (HCF-1) are stimulated by cleavage of precursors that generates stable heterodimeric complexes. MLL is processed by a protease called taspase 1, whereas the precise mechanisms of HCF-1 maturation are unclear, although they are known to depend on a series of sequence repeats called HCF-1(PRO) repeats. We demonstrate here that the Drosophila homologs of MLL and HCF-1, called Trithorax and dHCF, are both cleaved by Drosophila taspase 1. Although highly related, the human and Drosophila taspase 1 proteins display cognate species specificity. Thus, human taspase 1 preferentially cleaves MLL and Drosophila taspase 1 preferentially cleaves Trithorax, consistent with coevolution of taspase 1 and MLL/Trithorax proteins. HCF proteins display even greater species-specific divergence in processing: whereas dHCF is cleaved by the Drosophila taspase 1, human and mouse HCF-1 maturation is taspase 1 independent. Instead, human and Xenopus HCF-1PRO repeats are cleaved in vitro by a human proteolytic activity with novel properties. Thus, from insects to humans, HCF proteins have conserved proteolytic maturation but evolved different mechanisms.

Maturation of lymph node fibroblastic reticular cells from myofibroblastic precursors is critical for antiviral immunity.

The stromal scaffold of the lymph node (LN) paracortex is built by fibroblastic reticular cells (FRCs). Conditional ablation of lymphotoxin-β receptor (LTβR) expression in LN FRCs and their mesenchymal progenitors in developing LNs revealed that LTβR-signaling in these cells was not essential for the formation of LNs. Although T cell zone reticular cells had lost podoplanin expression, they still formed a functional conduit system and showed enhanced expression of myofibroblastic markers. However, essential immune functions of FRCs, including homeostatic chemokine and interleukin-7 expression, were impaired. These changes in T cell zone reticular cell function were associated with increased susceptibility to viral infection. Thus, myofibroblasic FRC precursors are able to generate the basic T cell zone infrastructure, whereas LTβR-dependent maturation of FRCs guarantees full immunocompetence and hence optimal LN function during infection.

Micronutrient Accumulation in Conilon Coffee Berries with Different Maturation Cycles

ABSTRACT The number of days between anthesis and maturation of conilon coffee berries varies according to the genotype. Thus, it is believed that periods of greater nutrient demand for fruit formation also vary according to the genotype, directly influencing fertilizer management. The goal of this study was to establish accumulation curves for the micronutrients boron, copper, iron, manganese, and zinc in conilon coffee trees with different maturation cycles. The experiment was conducted in Nova Venécia, State of Espírito Santo, Brazil, during the reproductive cycle of the 2010/2011 crop year. Four coffee genotypes with different maturation cycles (early, intermediate, late, and super-late) were studied. A completely randomized experimental design was used with five replications. The treatments correspond to the accumulation of B, Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn in the berries every 28 days in the period from flowering to harvest. The early, intermediate, and late genotypes accumulated Fe, Cu, and Mn in a similar manner, with sigmoid curves, whereas the super-late genotype accumulated these nutrients exponentially. Zn was accumulated by all four genotypes following a sigmoid curve. The early, intermediate, and late genotypes accumulated B linearly, whereas the super-late genotype accumulated B following a sigmoid curve. The maturation cycle of the genotype must be taken into account to apply the correct rate of micronutrient fertilization in coffee plantations.

Silencing of c-Fos expression by microRNA-155 is critical for dendritic cell maturation and function.

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, noncoding RNAs that regulate target mRNAs by binding to their 3' untranslated regions. There is growing evidence that microRNA-155 (miR155) modulates gene expression in various cell types of the immune system and is a prominent player in the regulation of innate and adaptive immune responses. To define the role of miR155 in dendritic cells (DCs) we performed a detailed analysis of its expression and function in human and mouse DCs. A strong increase in miR155 expression was found to be a general and evolutionarily conserved feature associated with the activation of DCs by diverse maturation stimuli in all DC subtypes tested. Analysis of miR155-deficient DCs demonstrated that miR155 induction is required for efficient DC maturation and is critical for the ability of DCs to promote antigen-specific T-cell activation. Expression-profiling studies performed with miR155(-/-) DCs and DCs overexpressing miR155, combined with functional assays, revealed that the mRNA encoding the transcription factor c-Fos is a direct target of miR155. Finally, all of the phenotypic and functional defects exhibited by miR155(-/-) DCs could be reproduced by deregulated c-Fos expression. These results indicate that silencing of c-Fos expression by miR155 is a conserved process that is required for DC maturation and function.

A soluble form of B cell maturation antigen, a receptor for the tumor necrosis factor family member APRIL, inhibits tumor cell growth.

A proliferation-inducing ligand (APRIL) is a ligand of the tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family that stimulates tumor cell growth in vitro and in vivo. Expression of APRIL is highly upregulated in many tumors including colon and prostate carcinomas. Here we identify B cell maturation antigen (BCMA) and transmembrane activator and calcium modulator and cyclophilin ligand (CAML) interactor (TACI), two predicted members of the TNF receptor family, as receptors for APRIL. APRIL binds BCMA with higher affinity than TACI. A soluble form of BCMA, which inhibits the proliferative activity of APRIL in vitro, decreases tumor cell proliferation in nude mice. Growth of HT29 colon carcinoma cells is blocked when mice are treated once per week with the soluble receptor. These results suggest an important role for APRIL in tumorigenesis and point towards a novel anticancer strategy.

TrkB and TrkC signaling are required for maturation and synaptogenesis of hippocampal connections

Recent studies have suggested a role for neurotrophins in the growth and refinement of neural connections, in dendritic growth, and in activity-dependent adult plasticity. To unravel the role of endogenous neurotrophins in the development of neural connections in the CNS, we studied the ontogeny of hippocampal afferents intrkB (¿/¿) and trkC (¿/¿) mice. Injections of lipophilic tracers in the entorhinal cortex and hippocampus of newborn mutant mice showed that the ingrowth of entorhinal and commissural/associational afferents to the hippocampus was not affected by these mutations. Similarly, injections of biocytin in postnatal mutant mice (P10¿P16) did not reveal major differences in the topographic patterns of hippocampal connections. In contrast, quantification of biocytin-filled axons showed that commissural and entorhinal afferents have a reduced number of axon collaterals (21¿49%) and decreased densities of axonal varicosities (8¿17%) in both trkB (¿/¿) and trkC (¿/¿) mice. In addition, electron microscopic analyses showed thattrkB (¿/¿) and trkC (¿/¿) mice have lower densities of synaptic contacts and important structural alterations of presynaptic boutons, such as decreased density of synaptic vesicles. Finally, immunocytochemical studies revealed a reduced expression of the synaptic-associated proteins responsible for synaptic vesicle exocytosis and neurotransmitter release (v-SNAREs and t-SNAREs), especially in trkB (¿/¿) mice. We conclude that neither trkB nor trkC genes are essential for the ingrowth or layer-specific targeting of hippocampal connections, although the lack of these receptors results in reduced axonal arborization and synaptic density, which indicates a role for TrkB and TrkC receptors in the developmental regulation of synaptic inputs in the CNS in vivo. The data also suggest that the genes encoding for synaptic proteins may be targets of TrkB and TrkC signaling pathways.

The number of Toll-like receptor 9-agonist motifs in the adenovirus genome correlates with induction of dendritic cell maturation by adenovirus immune complexes.

Adenovirus serotype 5 (Ad5) vectors and specific neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) generate immune complexes (ICs) which are potent inducers of dendritic cell (DC) maturation. Here we show that ICs generated with rare Ad vector serotypes, such as Ad26 and Ad35, which are lead candidates in HIV vaccine development, are poor inducers of DC maturation and that their potency in inducing DC maturation strongly correlated with the number of Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9)-agonist motifs present in the Ad vector's genome. In addition, we showed that antihexon but not antifiber antibodies are responsible for the induction of Ad IC-mediated DC maturation.

La maturation cérébrale à l'adolescence [Adolescent brain maturation].

Recent progress in neuroscience has yielded major findings regarding brain maturation during adolescence. Unlike the body, which reaches adult size and morphology during this period, the adolescent brain is still maturing. The prefrontal cortex appears to be an important locus of maturational change subserving executive functions that may regulate emotional and motivational issues. The recent expansion of the adolescent period has increased the lag between the onset of emotional and motivational changes activated by puberty and the completion of cognitive development-the maturation of self-regulatory capacities and skills that are continuing to develop long after puberty has occurred. This "disconnect" predicts risk for a broad set of behavioral and emotional problems. Adolescence is a critical period for high-level cognitive functions such as socialization that rely on maturation of the prefrontal cortex. Intervention during the period of adolescent brain development provides opportunities and requires an interdisciplinary approach.

Mechanisms of HCF protein proteolytic maturation

Abstract : Post-translational modifications such as proteolytic processing, phosphorylation, and glycosylation, add extra layers of complexity to proteomes and allow a finely tuned regulation of the activity of many proteins. The evolutionarily conserved cell-cycle and transcriptional regulator HCP-] is regulated by proteolytic maturation via which a stable heterodirneric complex of two cleaved subunits is formed from a single precursor protein. The human HCF-1 precursor is cleaved at six nearly identical 26 amino acid sequence repeats, called HCF-1pro repeats, which represent uncommon protease recognition sites dedicated to human HCF-1 proteolysis. This proteolytic maturation process is conserved in vertebrate HCF-1 homologues and is essential for the functions of the human protein in cell-cycle regulation; the mechanisms that execute and control HCF-1 proteolysis, however, remain poorly understood. In this dissertation I investigate the mechanisms of proteolytic maturation of HCF-1 proteins in different species. I show that the Drosophila homolog of human HCF-1, called dHCP, is proteolytically cleaved via a different mechanism than human HCF-1. dHCP is processed by the same protease, called Taspase], which cleaves one of the key developmental regulators in flies, the Trithorax protein. Maturation of HCP proteins via Taspase] cleavage is probably not particular to dHCP as many invertebrate HCP proteins, particularly insects and flatworms, possess Taspase] recognition sites. In contrast, the vertebrate HCF-1 proteins lack Taspase] recognition sites and the HCF-1pro repeats are not Taspase1 substrates, suggesting that multiple mechanisms for HCF-1 proteolytic maturation have appeared during evolution. I also show that the proteolytic activity responsible for the cleavage of the HCP- 1pro repeats is very difficult to characterize, being resistant to most protease inhibitors and very sensitive to biochemical fractionation. Moreover, the HCF-1pro repeats represent complex protease recognition sites and I demonstrate that, in addition to be the HCF-1 cleavage sites, these repeated sequences, also recruit the OG1cNAc transferase OGT. The OGT protein and the OG1cNAc modification of HCF-1 are both important for HCF-1pro repeat proteolysis. Interestingly, a human recombinant OGT purified from insect cells is able to induce cleavage of a HCF-1pro-repeat precursor in vitro, indicating that OGT either (i) induces HCF-1 autoproteolysis,(ii) is the HCF-1pro- repeat proteolytic activity itself, or (iii) physically associates with a proteolytic activity that is conserved in insect cells. In any case, OGT plays an important role in HCF-1 proteolytic maturation and perhaps a broader role in HCF-1 biological function. Résumé : Les modifications post-traductionelles pomme le clivage protéolytique, la phosphorylation, et la glycosylation, augmentent significativement la complexité des protéomes et permettent une régulation fine de l'activité de beaucoup de protéines. La protéine HCF-1, qui est un régulateur du cycle cellulaire et de la transcription, est elle- même régulée par clivage protéolytique. La protéine HCF-1 est en effet coupée en deux sous-unités qui s'associent l'une a l'autre pour former la protéine mature. Le précurseur de la protéine HCF-1 humaine est clivé à six sites correspondant à six séquences répétées nommées les HCF-1pro repeats, chacune composée de 26 acide aminés. Les HCF-1pro- repeats ne ressemblent ai aucune séquence de clivage protéolytique connue et sont présentes seulement dans les protéines HCF-1 chez les vertébrés. Bien que la maturation protéolytique d'HCF-1 soit essentielle pour les activités de cette protéine pendant le cycle cellulaire, les mécanismes qui la contrôlent restent inconnus. Au cours de mon travail de thèse, j'ai analysé les mécanismes de clivage protéolytique des protéines HCF dans différentes espèces. J'ai montré que la protéine de Drosophile homologue d'HCF-1 humaine nommée dHCF est clivée par une protéase nommée Taspase1. Ainsi, dHCF est clivé par la même protéase que celle qui induit la maturation protéolytique d'un des principaux facteurs du développement chez la mouche, la protéine Trithorax. La maturation de dHCF via le clivage par la Taspase1 n'est pas spécifique à la mouche, mais est probablement étendu à plusieurs protéines HCF chez les invertébrés, surtout dans les familles des insectes et des plathehninthes, car ces protéines HCF présentent des sites de reconnaissance pour la Taspasel. Par contre, les protéines HCF-1 chez les vertébrés n'ont pas de sites de reconnaissance pour la Taspasel et cela suggère que différents mécanismes de maturation des protéines HCF- ls ont apparu au cours de l'évolution. J'ai montré aussi que les HCF-1pro-repeats sont clivés par une activité protéolytique très difficile a identifier, car elle est résistante à la plupart des inhibiteurs de protéases, mais elle est très sensible au fractionnement biochimique. En plus, les HCF-1pro-repeats sont un site de protéolyse complexe qui ne sert pas seulement au clivage des protéines HCF- chez les vertébrés mais aussi à recruter l'enzyme responsable de la O- GlcNAcylation nommée OGT. La protéine OGT et la O-GlcNAcylatio d'HCF-1 sont toutes les deux importantes pour le clivage protéolytique des HCF1pro-repeats. Curieusement, la protéine OGT humaine produite dans des cellules d'insectes est capable de cliver les HCF-1pro repeats in vitro et cela suggère que OGT soit (i) induit le clivage autocatalytique cl'HCF-1, soit (ii) est elle-même l'activité protéolytique qui clive HCF4, soit (iii) est associée à une activité protéolytique conservée dans les cellules d'insectes qui a été co-purifiée avec OGT. En conclusion, OGT joue un rôle important dans la maturation protéolytique d'HCF-1 et peut-être aussi un rôle plus large dans les fonctions biologiques de la protéine HCF-1.

Changes in the contents of kaempherol, quercetin and L-ascorbic acid in sea buckthorn berries during maturation

Selostus: Tyrnin marjojen kamferoli-, kversetiini- ja L-askorbiinihappopitoisuuksien muutokset kypsymisen aikana