The geometric structure of the brain fiber pathways.

The structure of the brain as a product of morphogenesis is difficult to reconcile with the observed complexity of cerebral connectivity. We therefore analyzed relationships of adjacency and crossing between cerebral fiber pathways in four nonhuman primate species and in humans by using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging. The cerebral fiber pathways formed a rectilinear three-dimensional grid continuous with the three principal axes of development. Cortico-cortical pathways formed parallel sheets of interwoven paths in the longitudinal and medio-lateral axes, in which major pathways were local condensations. Cross-species homology was strong and showed emergence of complex gyral connectivity by continuous elaboration of this grid structure. This architecture naturally supports functional spatio-temporal coherence, developmental path-finding, and incremental rewiring with correlated adaptation of structure and function in cerebral plasticity and evolution.

En face optical coherence tomography of foveal microstructure in full-thickness macular hole: a model to study perifoveal müller cells.

PURPOSE: To characterize perifoveal intraretinal cavities observed around full-thickness macular holes (MH) using en face optical coherence tomography and to establish correlations with histology of human and primate maculae. DESIGN: Retrospective nonconsecutive observational case series. METHODS: Macular en face scans of 8 patients with MH were analyzed to quantify the areas of hyporeflective spaces, and were compared with macular flat mounts and sections from 1 normal human donor eye and 2 normal primate eyes (Macaca fascicularis). Immunohistochemistry was used to study the distribution of glutamine synthetase, expressed by Müller cells, and zonula occludens-1, a tight-junction protein. RESULTS: The mean area of hyporeflective spaces was lower in the inner nuclear layer (INL) than in the complex formed by the outer plexiform (OPL) and the Henle fiber layers (HFL): 5.0 × 10(-3) mm(2) vs 15.9 × 10(-3) mm(2), respectively (P < .0001, Kruskal-Wallis test). In the OPL and HFL, cavities were elongated with a stellate pattern, whereas in the INL they were rounded and formed vertical cylinders. Immunohistochemistry confirmed that Müller cells followed a radial distribution around the fovea in the frontal plane and a "Z-shaped" course in the axial plane, running obliquely in the OPL and HFL and vertically in the inner layers. In addition, zonula occludens-1 co-localized with Müller cells within the complex of OPL and HFL, indicating junctions in between Müller cells and cone axons. CONCLUSION: The dual profile of cavities around MHs correlates with Müller cell morphology and is consistent with the hypothesis of intra- or extracellular fluid accumulation along these cells.

Synthetic long peptide booster immunization in rhesus macaques primed with replication-competent NYVAC-C-KC induces a balanced CD4/CD8 T-cell and antibody response against the conserved regions of HIV-1.

The Thai trial (RV144) indicates that a prime-boost vaccine combination that induces both T-cell and antibody responses may be desirable for an effective HIV vaccine. We have previously shown that immunization with synthetic long peptides (SLP), covering the conserved parts of SIV, induced strong CD4 T-cell and antibody responses, but only modest CD8 T-cell responses. To generate a more balanced CD4/CD8 T-cell and antibody response, this study evaluated a pox-vector prime/SLP boost strategy in rhesus macaques. Priming with a replication-competent NYVAC, encoding HIV-1 clade C gag, pol and nef, induced modest IFNγ T-cell immune responses, predominantly directed against HIV-1 Gag. Booster immunization with SLP, covering the conserved parts of HIV-1 Gag, Pol and Env, resulted in a more than 10-fold increase in IFNγ ELISpot responses in four of six animals, which were predominantly HIV-1 Pol-specific. The animals showed a balanced polyfunctional CD4 and CD8 T-cell response and high Ab titres.

Functional impact of genetic variation on gene expression

Numerous links between genetic variants and phenotypes are known and genome-wide association studies dramatically increased the number of genetic variants associated with traits during the last decade. However, how changes in the DNA perturb the molecular mechanisms and impact on the phenotype of an organism remains elusive. Studies suggest that many traitassociated variants are in the non-coding region of the genome and probably act through regulation of gene expression. During my thesis I investigated how genetic variants affect gene expression through gene regulatory mechanisms. The first chapter was a collaborative project with a pharmaceutical company, where we investigated genome-wide copy number variation (CNVs) among Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) used in pharmaceutical studies, and associated them to changes in gene expression. We found substantial copy number variation and identified CNVs linked to tissue-specific expression changes of proximal genes. The second and third chapters focus on genetic variation in humans and its effects on gene regulatory mechanisms and gene expression. The second chapter studies two human trios, where the allelic effects of genetic variation on genome-wide gene expression, protein-DNA binding and chromatin modifications were investigated. We found abundant allele specific activity across all measured molecular phenotypes and show extended coordinated behavior among them. In the third chapter, we investigated the impact of genetic variation on these phenotypes in 47 unrelated individuals. We found that chromatin phenotypes are organized into local variable modules, often linked to genetic variation and gene expression. Our results suggest that chromatin variation emerges as a result of perturbations of cis-regulatory elements by genetic variants, leading to gene expression changes. The work of this thesis provides novel insights into how genetic variation impacts gene expression by perturbing regulatory mechanisms. -- De nombreux liens entre variations génétiques et phénotypes sont connus. Les études d'association pangénomique ont considérablement permis d'augmenter le nombre de variations génétiques associées à des phénotypes au cours de la dernière décennie. Cependant, comprendre comment ces changements perturbent les mécanismes moléculaires et affectent le phénotype d'un organisme nous échappe encore. Des études suggèrent que de nombreuses variations, associées à des phénotypes, sont situées dans les régions non codantes du génome et sont susceptibles d'agir en modifiant la régulation d'expression des gènes. Au cours de ma thèse, j'ai étudié comment les variations génétiques affectent les niveaux d'expression des gènes en perturbant les mécanismes de régulation de leur expression. Le travail présenté dans le premier chapitre est un projet en collaboration avec une société pharmaceutique. Nous avons étudié les variations en nombre de copies (CNV) présentes chez le macaque crabier (Macaca fascicularis) qui est utilisé dans les études pharmaceutiques, et nous les avons associées avec des changements d'expression des gènes. Nous avons découvert qu'il existe une variabilité substantielle du nombre de copies et nous avons identifié des CNVs liées aux changements d'expression des gènes situés dans leur voisinage. Ces associations sont présentes ou absentes de manière spécifique dans certains tissus. Les deuxième et troisième chapitres se concentrent sur les variations génétiques dans les populations humaines et leurs effets sur les mécanismes de régulation des gènes et leur expression. Le premier se penche sur deux trios humains, père, mère, enfant, au sein duquel nous avons étudié les effets alléliques des variations génétiques sur l'expression des gènes, les liaisons protéine-ADN et les modifications de la chromatine. Nous avons découvert que l'activité spécifique des allèles est abondante abonde dans tous ces phénotypes moléculaires et nous avons démontré que ces derniers ont un comportement coordonné entre eux. Dans le second, nous avons examiné l'impact des variations génétiques de ces phénotypes moléculaires chez 47 individus, sans lien de parenté. Nous avons observé que les phénotypes de la chromatine sont organisés en modules locaux, qui sont liés aux variations génétiques et à l'expression des gènes. Nos résultats suggèrent que la variabilité de la chromatine est due à des variations génétiques qui perturbent des éléments cis-régulateurs, et peut conduire à des changements dans l'expression des gènes. Le travail présenté dans cette thèse fournit de nouvelles pistes pour comprendre l'impact des différentes variations génétiques sur l'expression des gènes à travers les mécanismes de régulation.

Freqüência de biovares de ralstonia solanacearum em diferentes cultivares e épocas de cultivo de batata no rio grande do sul

A presença das biovares I e/ou II de Ralstonia solanacearum em uma lavoura de batatas (Solanum tuberosum) tem influência direta no sucesso das medidas adotadas para controlar a murcha bacteriana. As biovares diferem entre si em relação à agressividade, latência e sobrevivência. Assim, um experimento de campo foi conduzido em uma área naturalmente infestada em duas épocas de cultivo com os objetivos de verificar (1) a incidência de biovares I e/ou II, (2) a relação entre biovar e época de plantio e (3) a relação entre biovar e cultivar de batata. Os isolados obtidos de plantas das cultivares Achat, Baronesa, Elvira, Macaca, Monte Bonito e Trapeira foram identificados como biovar I ou II através da PCR, utilizando os oligonucleotídeos iniciadores T3A e T5A. Ambas as biovares foram encontradas na área naturalmente infestada. De 73 isolados de R. solanacearum, 94,5% foram identificados como biovar II e 5,5% como biovar I. A biovar II foi isolada dos cultivos de primavera e de outono, independente da cultivar, mas a I apenas do cultivo de primavera e de plantas assintomáticas das cultivares Achat e Macaca. A maior população da biovar I nestas duas cultivares pode ser uma evidência da possível relação entre biovar e cultivar.

Anatomia comparativa da dura-máter de Sapajus libidinosus

O Sapajus libidinosus é um primata do novo mundo popularmente conhecido como macaco-prego, geograficamente distribuído por todo território sul-americano, possui características de inquietude e habilidade de manipulação de ferramentas para a obtenção de alimentos. Este estudo teve por objetivo descrever a morfologia dos seios da dura-máter de Sapajus libidinosus numa perspectiva comparativa. Foram utilizados um total de 3 animais adultos e machos oriundos da Universidade Federal de Goiás e fixados em solução aquosa de formaldeído 10%. No encéfalo de S. libidinosus, foi possível observar a fissura longitudinal, profunda e que divide o mesmo em dois hemisférios, esquerdo e direito. O lobo parietal e frontal apresenta-se relativamente lisoencefálico, mas com giros e sulcos bem definidos e no lobo occipital nota-se a predominância do aspecto lisencefálico. Nota-se a presença de 8 seios da dura-máter, que corresponde de modo geral às descrições para outros primatas como Pan, Papio e homem. Notamos a presença dos seios sagital dorsal, seio sagital ventral, seio transverso, seio reto, seio sigmóide, seio temporal e seio basilar, que são semelhantes a Pan, Papio e homem, a presença do seio parietal semelhante à Saimiri sciureus e a ausência do seio occipital, assim como em Macaca mullata. No macaco prego não foram observados os seios intracavernosos, seio esfenoparietal, seio petroso superior, seio petroso inferior, sendo estes descritos em Pan, Papio e Homem. Sendo assim, estes dados demonstram uma possível maior proximidade evolutiva entre Papio e Pan em relação ao homem do que o macaco Sapajus.

Neural correlates of affordance competition in dorsal premotor cortex

Le travail présenté dans cette thèse porte sur le rôle du cortex prémoteur dorsal (PMd) au sujet de la prise de décision (sélection d’une action parmis nombreux choix) et l'orientation visuelle des mouvements du bras. L’ouvrage décrit des expériences électrophysiologiques chez le singe éveillé (Macaca mulatta) permettant d’adresser une fraction importante des prédictions proposées par l'hypothèse des affordances concurrentes (Cisek, 2006; Cisek, 2007a). Cette hypothèse suggère que le choix de toute action est l’issue d'une concurrence entre les représentations internes des exigences et des atouts de chacune des options présentées (affordances; Gibson, 1979). Un intérêt particulier est donné au traitement de l'information spatiale et la valeur des options (expected value, EV) dans la prise de décisions. La première étude (article 1) explore la façon dont PMd reflète ces deux paramètres dans la période délai ainsi que de leur intéraction. La deuxième étude (article 2) explore le mécanisme de décision de façon plus détaillée et étend les résultats au cortex prémoteur ventral (PMv). Cette étude porte également sur la représentation spatiale et l’EV dans une perspective d'apprentissage. Dans un environnement nouveau les paramètres spatiaux des actions semblent être présents en tout temps dans PMd, malgré que la représentation de l’EV apparaît uniquement lorsque les animaux commencent à prendre des décisions éclairées au sujet de la valeur des options disponibles. La troisième étude (article 3) explore la façon dont PMd est impliqué aux “changements d'esprit“ dans un procès de décision. Cette étude décrit comment la sélection d’une action est mise à jour à la suite d'une instruction de mouvement (GO signal). I II Les résultats principaux des études sont reproduits par un modèle computationnel (Cisek, 2006) suggérant que la prise de décision entre plusieurs actions alternatives peux se faire par voie d’un mécanisme de concurrence (biased competition) qui aurait lieu dans la même région qui spécifie les actions.

Rod bipolar cells in the retina of the capuchin monkey (Cebus apella): Characterization and distribution

Rod bipolar cells in Cebus apella monkey retina were identified by an antibody against the alpha isoform of protein kinase C (PKC alpha). which has been shown to selectively identify rod bipolars in two other primates and various mammals. Vertical sections were used to confirm the identity of these cells by their characteristic morphology of dendrites and axons. Their topographic distribution was assessed in horizontal sections; counts taken along the dorsal, ventral, nasal, and temporal quadrants. The density of rod bipolar cells increased from 500 to 2900 cells/mm(2) at 1 mm from the fovea to reach a peak of 10,000-12,000 cellss/mm(2) at 4 mm, approximately 5 deg of eccentricity, and then gradually decreased toward retinal periphery to values of 5000 cells/mm(2) or less. Rod to rod bipolar density ratio remained between 10 and 20 across most of the retinal extension. The number of rod bipolar cells per retina was 6,360,000 +/- 387,433 (mean +/- S.D., n = 6). The anti-PKC alpha antibody has shown to be a good marker of rod bipolar cells of Cebus, and the cell distribution is similar to that described for other primates. In spite of the difference in the central retina, the density variation of rod bipolar cells in the Cebus and Macaca as well as the convergence from rod to rod bipolar cells are Generally similar, suggesting that both retinae stabilize similar sensitivity (as measured by rod density) and convergence.

Cyto-, myelo- and chemoarchitecture of the prefrontal cortex of the Cebus monkey

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

The anatomical connections of the macaque monkey orbitofrontal cortex. A review

The orbitofrontal cortex (OfC) is a heterogeneous prefrontal sector selectively connected with a wide constellation of other prefrontal, limbic, sensory and premotor areas. Among the limbic cortical connections, the ones with the bippocampus and parabippocampal cortex are particularly salient. Sensory cortices connected with the OfC include areas involved in olfactory, gustatory, somatosensory, auditory and visual processing. Subcortical structures with prominent OfC connections include the amygdala, numerous thalamic nuclei, the striatum, hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray matter, and biochemically specific cell groups in the basal forebrain and brainstem. Architectonic and connectional evidence supports parcellation of the OfC. The rostrally placed isocortical sector is mainly connected with isocortical areas, including sensory areas of the auditory, somatic and visual modalities, whereas the caudal non-isocortical sector is principally connected with non-isocortical areas, and, in the sensory domain, with olfactory and gustatory areas. The connections of the isocortical and non- isocortical orbital sectors with the amygdala, thalamus, striatum, hypotbalamus and periaqueductal gray matter are also specific. The medial sector of the OfC is selectively connected with the bippocampus, posterior parabippocampal cortex, posterior cingulate and retrosplenial areas, and area prostriata, while the lateral orbitofrontal sector is the most heavily connected with sensory areas of the gustatory, somatic and visual modalities, with premotor regions, and with the amygdala.

Mechanical isolation of capuchin monkey (Cebus apella) preantral ovarian follicles

O presente trabalho objetivou adaptar um procedimento mecânico para o isolamento de folículos pré-antrais a partir de ovários de Cebus apella. Para isso, foi testado o efeito do intervalo de cortes seriados do tissue chopper sobre o número de folículos pré-antrais isolados a partir de ovários (n=6) de três fêmeas de C. apella, duas pré-púberes e uma adulta. Os ovários foram divididos em quatro partes iguais e fragmentados com auxílio de um tissue chopper, ajustado para a realização de secções seriadas a intervalos de 250, 500, 750 e 1000µm, respectivamente. Os folículos isolados foram contados em câmara de Neubauer e classificados em primordiais, primários e secundários. O número (média ± EP) de folículos pré-antrais isolados de 1/4 de ovário variou de 68.330+17.590, no intervalo de corte de 1.000µm, a 300.830+111.460, no intervalo de corte de 500µm, o de melhores resultados. O diâmetro médio dos folículos pré-antrais isolados variou de 11,6µm a 27, 8µm.

Controllo dell'atto di prensione: coinvolgimento dell'area V6A nell'orientamento del polso

Prehension in an act of coordinated reaching and grasping. The reaching component is concerned with bringing the hand to object to be grasped (transport phase); the grasping component refers to the shaping of the hand according to the object features (grasping phase) (Jeannerod, 1981). Reaching and grasping involve different muscles, proximal and distal muscles respectively, and are controlled by different parietofrontal circuit (Jeannerod et al., 1995): a medial circuit, involving area of superior parietal lobule and dorsal premotor area 6 (PMd) (dorsomedial visual stream), is mainly concerned with reaching; a lateral circuit, involving the inferior parietal lobule and ventral premotor area 6 (PMv) (dorsolateral visual stream), with grasping. Area V6A is located in the caudalmost part of the superior parietal lobule, so it belongs to the dorsomedial visual stream; it contains neurons sensitive to visual stimuli (Galletti et al. 1993, 1996, 1999) as well as cells sensitive to the direction of gaze (Galletti et al. 1995) and cells showing saccade-related activity (Nakamura et al. 1999; Kutz et al. 2003). Area V6A contains also arm-reaching neurons likely involved in the control of the direction of the arm during movements towards objects in the peripersonal space (Galletti et al. 1997; Fattori et al. 2001). The present results confirm this finding and demonstrate that during the reach-to-grasp the V6A neurons are also modulated by the orientation of the wrist. Experiments were approved by the Bioethical Committee of the University of Bologna and were performed in accordance with National laws on care and use of laboratory animals and with the European Communities Council Directive of 24th November 1986 (86/609/EEC), recently revised by the Council of Europe guidelines (Appendix A of Convention ETS 123). Experiments were performed in two awake Macaca fascicularis. Each monkey was trained to sit in a primate chair with the head restrained to perform reaching and grasping arm movements in complete darkness while gazing a small fixation point. The object to be grasped was a handle that could have different orientation. We recorded neural activity from 163 neurons of the anterior parietal sulcus; 116/163 (71%) neurons were modulated by the reach-to-grasp task during the execution of the forward movements toward the target (epoch MOV), 111/163 (68%) during the pulling of the handle (epoch HOLD) and 102/163 during the execution of backward movements (epoch M2) (t_test, p ≤ 0.05). About the 45% of the tested cells turned out to be sensitive to the orientation of the handle (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05). To study how the distal components of the movement, such as the hand preshaping during the reaching of the handle, could influence the neuronal discharge, we compared the neuronal activity during the reaching movements towards the same spatial location in reach-to-point and reach-to-grasp tasks. Both tasks required proximal arm movements; only the reach-to-grasp task required distal movements to orient the wrist and to shape the hand to grasp the handle. The 56% of V6A cells showed significant differences in the neural discharge (one way ANOVA, p ≤ 0.05) between the reach-to-point and the reach-to-grasp tasks during MOV, 54% during HOLD and 52% during M2. These data show that reaching and grasping are processed by the same population of neurons, providing evidence that the coordination of reaching and grasping takes place much earlier than previously thought, i.e., in the parieto-occipital cortex. The data here reported are in agreement with results of lesions to the medial posterior parietal cortex in both monkeys and humans, and with recent imaging data in humans, all of them indicating a functional coupling in the control of reaching and grasping by the medial parietofrontal circuit.

Coding of reaching in 3-D space

Many psychophysical studies suggest that target depth and direction during reaches are processed independently, but the neurophysiological support to this view is so far limited. Here, we investigated the representation of reach depth and direction by single neurons in an area of the medial posterior parietal cortex (V6A). Single-unit activity was recorded from V6A in two Macaca fascicularis monkeys performing a fixation-to-reach task to targets at different depths and directions. We found that in a substantial percentage of V6A neurons depth and direction signals jointly influenced fixation, planning and arm movement-related activity in 3D space. While target depth and direction were equally encoded during fixation, depth tuning became stronger during arm movement planning, execution and target holding. The spatial tuning of fixation activity was often maintained across epochs, and this occurred more frequently in depth. These findings support for the first time the existence of a common neural substrate for the encoding of target depth and direction during reaching movements in the posterior parietal cortex. Present results also highlight the presence in V6A of several types of cells that process independently or jointly eye position and arm movement planning and execution signals in order to control reaches in 3D space. It is possible that depth and direction influence also the metrics of the reach action and that this effect on the reach kinematic variables can account for the spatial tuning we found in V6A neural activity. For this reason, we recorded and analyzed behavioral data when one monkey performed reaching movements in 3-D space. We evaluated how the target spatial position, in particular target depth and target direction, affected the kinematic parameters and trajectories describing the motor action properties.

Serumfreie Collagen-Monolayer- und Sandwich-Kulturen primärer Hepatozyten als ein wertvolles Modell zur Detektion von Toxizität und Arzneimittelwechselwirkungen in vitro

In dieser Arbeit wurden Zellkulturen primärer Hepatozyten von Ratte und Mensch hinsichtlich ihrer Eignung untersucht Speziesunterschiede der toxischen Wirkung und des Metabolismus von Substanzen darzustellen und inwieweit die in vitro-Ergebnisse in vivo vergleichbar bzw. übertragbar sind. Des Weiteren wurde ein Zellkulturmodell entwickelt, das eine Kultivierung von primären Hepatozyten aus Ratte, Mensch und Maus über einen Zeitraum von mindestens einer bis zwei Wochen erlaubt.rnrnDie Zellkulturen primärer Hepatozyten von Ratte und Mensch zeigten deutliche Unterschiede in der substanzinduzierten Veränderung der Genexpression nach Behandlung mit den, vor allem für den Menschen, lebertoxischen Substanzen Diclofenac und Troglitazon. Diese Unterschiede traten hauptsächlich in der Induktion fremdstoffmetabolisierender Enzyme sowie deren transkriptionsregulierenden Kernrezeptoren in den humanen Hepatozyten auf. Ebenso war eine verstärkte Stressantwort zu beobachten.rnDeutliche Speziesunterschiede konnten ebenso in der Wirkung der Arzneimittelentwicklungssubstanz EMD 392949 auf die Aktivität bzw. Genexpression von Cytochrom P450 Enzymen sowie deren Regulatoren nachgewiesen werden. Des Weiteren konnte hier eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung der Ergebnisse aus den Zellkulturen primärer Ratten- bzw. Humanhepatozyten mit jenen aus in vivo-Experimenten mit Ratten bzw. Affen (Macaca fascicularis) beobachtet werden, was die Aussagekraft der Primärkulturen verdeutlichte.rnDie große Übereinstimmung zwischen Enzymaktivität und Genexpression in der Induktion fremdstoffmetabolisierender Enzyme konnte durch die Behandlung mit einer Reihe speziesspezifischer Induktoren in Zellkulturen primärer Ratten- bzw. Humanhepatozyten bestätigt werden; vor allem nach dem von der amerikanischen Arzneimittelzulassungsbehörde (FDA, Food and Drug Administartion) vorgeschlagenen Bewertungsschema zur Untersuchung der CYP-Induktion.rnrnDie Lebensdauer sowie der Differenzierungsgrad von primären Hepatozyten in Kultur sind stark abhängig von den Zellkulturbedingungen. Durch diese Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass spezifische Eigenschaften von Rattenleberzellen durch Kultivierung in einem Sandwich aus zwei hydratisierten Collagengelschichten und unter serumfreien Bedingungen für einen Zeitraum von mindestens zwei Wochen aufrechterhalten werden können. Dieses Kulturmodel konnte auf Primärhepatozyten von Mensch und Maus übertragen werden und erweitert die möglichen Anwendungen hin zu einer Behandlung über einen längeren Zeitraum und der Untersuchung von subchronischen Effekten.rn