Application of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy for monitoring allergen-antibody reactions using gold nanoparticle-based biomolecular immobilization method

Gold nanoparticles were used to enhance the immobilization amount and retain the immunoactivity of recombinant dust mite allergen Der f2 immobilized on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE). The interaction between allergen and antibody was studied by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). Self-assembled Au colloid layer (Phi = 16 nm) deposited on (3-mercaptopropyl)trimethoxysilane (MPTS)-modified GCE offered a basis to control the immobilization of allergen Der f2. The impedance measurements were based on the charge transfer kinetics of the [Fe(CN)(6)](3-/4-) redox pair, compared with bare GCE, the immobilization of allergen Der f2 and the allergen-antibody interaction that occurred on the electrode surface altered the interfacial electron transfer resistance and thereby slowed down the charge transfer kinetics by reducing the active area of the electrode or by preventing the redox species in electrolyte solution from approaching the electrode. The interactions of allergen with various concentrations of monoclonal antibody were also monitored through the change of impedance response. The results showed that the electron transfer resistance increased with increasing concentrations of monoclonal antibody.

Colloid chemical approach to nanoelectrode ensembles with highly controllable active area fraction

A novel "bottom-up" approach to highly controllable nanoelectrode ensembles (NEEs) has been developed using colloidal nanoparticle self-assembly techniques. Ibis solution-based strategy allows flexible control over nanoelectrode size, shape, and interspacing of the as-prepared NEEs. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was proved to be a powerful tool to monitor the NEE topography, which yields parameters that can be used to calculate the fractional nanoelectrode area of the NEEs. AFM, ac impedance, and cyclic voltammetry studies demonstrate that most of nanoelectrodes on the NEEs (at least by 9-min self-assembly) are not diffusionally isolated under conventional ac frequency range and scan rates. As a result, the NEEs behave as "nanoelectrode-patch" assemblies. Besides, the as-prepared NEEs by different self-assembling times show an adjustable sensitivity to heterogeneous electron-transfer kinetics, which may be helpful to sensor applications. Like these NEEs constructed by other techniques, the present NEEs prepared by chemical self-assembly also exhibit the enhancement of electroanalytical detection limit consistent with NEE theory prediction.

Recent advances in scanning electrochemical microscopy

The basic principle, instrumentation and recent advances of scanning electrochemical microscopy are briefly reviewed with 55 references.

Formation of self-assembled monolayers on gold electrodes with inclusion complexes of cyclodextrins and viologens

A novel kind of electroactive self-assembled monolayer (SAM) has been successfully prepared through the following procedure: (1) formation of inclusion complexes (denoted as CD/C8VC10SH) between N-(n-octyl)-N'-(10-mercaptodecyl)-4,4'-bipyridinium dibromide (C8VC10SH) and alpha-, beta-cyclodextrin (CD) under a mild condition; (2) spontaneous formation of SAM of CD/C8VC10SH on gold electrodes at room temperature. High-resolution H-1-NMR spectrum was used to confirm the formation of CD/C8VC10SH. Cyclic voltammetry was used to characterize the redox behavior of the resulting monolayers and chronoamperometry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to characterize their electron transfer kinetics. It was found that the redox sites in SAM of CD/C8VC10SH are effectively diluted, with a larger electron transfer rate constant than that of SAM of C8VC10SH.

Impedance spectrum measurement in liquid liquid interface electrochemistry .1. Analysis of various kinds of interfacial impedance in the four-electrode system

Applying impedance spectrum technique to liquid/liquid interfacial electrochemistry, we present the theoretical expression of the liquid/liquid interfacial impedance in the four - electrode electrolytic cell measured by alternating current impedance method. The influence of the electrolytic cell parameters and input passage parameters of the impedance apparatus on impedance spectrum curves are theoretically studied.

ELECTROCHEMICAL STUDY OF PYRAZOLONE DERIVATIVES AT THE LIQUID/LIQUID INTERFACE

Pyrazolone derivatives, such as antipyrine, aminopyrine, and 4-aminoantipyrine, can transfer across the water/nitrobenzene interface to produce a pair of well-defined symmetric, reversible anodic-cathodic peaks by cyclic voltammetri. The transfer mechanis

THE USE OF CHEMICALLY MODIFIED ELECTRODES FOR LIQUID-CHROMATOGRAPHY AND FLOW-INJECTION ANALYSIS

The use of chemically modified electrodes (CMEs) for liquid chromatography and flow-injection analysis is reviewed. Electrochemical detection with CMEs based on electrocatalysis, permselectivity, ion flow in redox films, and ion transfer across the water-solidified nitrobenzene interface is discussed in terms of improving the stability, selectivity, and scope of electrochemical detectors, and the detection of electroinactive substances. More than 90 references are included.

ELECTROCHEMICAL INVESTIGATION OF LIQUID/LIQUID SYSTEMS USING VARIOUS ORGANIC SOLVENTS

The potential windows of the system water/pure solvent (W/P) and water/solvent mixtures(W/S) have been investigated by cyclic voltammetry with solvents whose dielectric constants lie between 5.87 and 34.82. In the presence of LiCI in the aqueous phase and tetrabutytammoniumtetraphenylborate(TBATPB) in the organic phase, the systems water/allyl iso-thiocyanate (W/AIT) and water/nitrobensene (W/NB) show a same wide epotential window. thermodynamic parameters of ion transfer W/AIT interface were determined. In systems of W/P and V/S the influence solvent effect on the standard gibbs energies of transfer of was discussed.

Radium and barium removal through blending hydraulic fracturing fluids with acid mine drainage.

Wastewaters generated during hydraulic fracturing of the Marcellus Shale typically contain high concentrations of salts, naturally occurring radioactive material (NORM), and metals, such as barium, that pose environmental and public health risks upon inadequate treatment and disposal. In addition, fresh water scarcity in dry regions or during periods of drought could limit shale gas development. This paper explores the possibility of using alternative water sources and their impact on NORM levels through blending acid mine drainage (AMD) effluent with recycled hydraulic fracturing flowback fluids (HFFFs). We conducted a series of laboratory experiments in which the chemistry and NORM of different mix proportions of AMD and HFFF were examined after reacting for 48 h. The experimental data combined with geochemical modeling and X-ray diffraction analysis suggest that several ions, including sulfate, iron, barium, strontium, and a large portion of radium (60-100%), precipitated into newly formed solids composed mainly of Sr barite within the first ∼ 10 h of mixing. The results imply that blending AMD and HFFF could be an effective management practice for both remediation of the high NORM in the Marcellus HFFF wastewater and beneficial utilization of AMD that is currently contaminating waterways in northeastern U.S.A.

A whole-cell and single-channel study of the voltage-dependent outward potassium current in avian hepatocytes.

Voltage-dependent membrane currents were studied in dissociated hepatocytes from chick, using the patch-clamp technique. All cells had voltage-dependent outward K+ currents; in 10% of the cells, a fast, transient, tetrodotoxin-sensitive Na+ current was identified. None of the cells had voltage-dependent inward Ca2+ currents. The K+ current activated at a membrane potential of about -10 mV, had a sigmoidal time course, and did not inactivate in 500 ms. The maximum outward conductance was 6.6 +/- 2.4 nS in 18 cells. The reversal potential, estimated from tail current measurements, shifted by 50 mV per 10-fold increase in the external K+ concentration. The current traces were fitted by n2 kinetics with voltage-dependent time constants. Omitting Ca2+ from the external bath or buffering the internal Ca2+ with EGTA did not alter the outward current, which shows that Ca2+-activated K+ currents were not present. 1-5 mM 4-aminopyridine, 0.5-2 mM BaCl2, and 0.1-1 mM CdCl2 reversibly inhibited the current. The block caused by Ba was voltage dependent. Single-channel currents were recorded in cell-attached and outside-out patches. The mean unitary conductance was 7 pS, and the channels displayed bursting kinetics. Thus, avian hepatocytes have a single type of K+ channel belonging to the delayed rectifier class of K+ channels.

Characterizing capacity loss of lithium oxygen batteries by impedance spectroscopy

Polymer based carbon aerogels were prepared by synthesis of a resorcinol formaldehyde gel followed by pyrolysis at 1073K under Ar and activation of the resultant carbon under CO2 at different temperatures. The prepared carbon aerogels were used as active materials in the preparation of cathode electrodes for lithium oxygen cells and the electrochemical performance of the cells was evaluated by galvanostatic charge/discharge cycling and electrochemical impedance measurements. It was shown that the storage capacity and discharge voltage of a Li/O2 cell strongly depend on the porous structure of the carbon used in cathode. EIS results also showed that the shape and value of the resistance in the impedance spectrum of a Li/O2 cell are strongly affected by the porosity of carbon used in the cathode. Porosity changes due to the build up of discharge products hinder the oxygen and lithium ion transfer into the electrode, resulting in a gradual increase in the cell impedance with cycling. The discharge capacity and cycle life of the battery decrease significantly as its internal resistance increases with charge/discharge cycling.

Photochemical reduction of oxygen adsorbed to nanocrystalline TiO2 films: A transient absorption and oxygen scavenging study of different TiO2 preparations

Transient absorption spectroscopy (TAS) has been used to study the interfacial electron-transfer reaction between photogenerated electrons in nanocrystalline titanium dioxide (TiO2) films and molecular oxygen. TiO2 films from three different starting materials (TiO2 anatase colloidal paste and commercial anatase/rutile powders Degussa TiO2 P25 and VP TiO2 P90) have been investigated in the presence of ethanol as a hole scavenger. Separate investigations on the photocatalytic oxygen consumption by the films have also been performed with an oxygen membrane polarographic detector. Results show that a correlation exists between the electron dynamics of oxygen consumption observed by TAS and the rate of oxygen consumption through the photocatalytic process. The highest activity and the fastest oxygen reduction dynamics were observed with films fabricated from anatase TiO2 colloidal paste. The use of TAS as a tool for the prediction of the photocatalytic activities of the materials is discussed. TAS studies indicate that the rate of reduction of molecular oxygen is limited by interfacial electron-transfer kinetics rather than by the electron trapping/detrapping dynamics within the TiO2 particles.

Mercury (II) removal from aqueous solutions by microporous materials

O Mercúrio é um dos metais pesados mais tóxicos existentes no meio ambiente, é persistente e caracteriza-se por bioamplificar e bioacumular ao longo da cadeia trófica. A poluição com mercúrio é um problema à escala global devido à combinação de emissões naturais e emissões antropogénicas, o que obriga a políticas ambientais mais restritivas sobre a descarga de metais pesados. Consequentemente o desenvolvimento de novos e eficientes materiais e de novas tecnologias para remover mercúrio de efluentes é necessário e urgente. Neste contexto, alguns materiais microporosos provenientes de duas famílias, titanossilicatos e zirconossilicatos, foram investigados com o objectivo de avaliar a sua capacidade para remover iões Hg2+ de soluções aquosas. De um modo geral, quase todos os materiais estudados apresentaram elevadas percentagens de remoção, confirmando que são bons permutadores iónicos e que têm capacidade para serem utilizados como agentes descontaminantes. O titanossilicato ETS-4 foi o material mais estudado devido à sua elevada eficiência de remoção (>98%), aliada à pequena quantidade de massa necessária para atingir essa elevada percentagem de remoção. Com apenas 4 mg⋅dm-3 de ETS-4 foi possível tratar uma solução com uma concentração igual ao valor máximo admissível para descargas de efluentes em cursos de água (50 μg⋅dm-3) e obter água com qualidade para consumo humano (<1.0 μg⋅dm-3), de acordo com a legislação Portuguesa (DL 236/98). Tal como para outros adsorbentes, a capacidade de remoção de Hg2+ do ETS- 4 depende de várias condições experimentais, tais como o tempo de contacto, a massa, a concentração inicial de mercúrio, o pH e a temperatura. Do ponto de vista industrial as condições óptimas para a aplicação do ETS-4 são bastante atractivas, uma vez que não requerem grandes quantidades de material e o tratamento da solução pode ser feito à temperatura ambiente. A aplicação do ETS-4 torna-se ainda mais interessante no caso de efluentes hospitalares, de processos de electro-deposição com níquel, metalúrgica, extracção de minérios, especialmente ouro, e indústrias de fabrico de cloro e soda cáustica, uma vez que estes efluentes apresentam valores de pH semelhantes ao valor de pH óptimo para a aplicação do ETS-4. A cinética do processo de troca iónica é bem descrita pelo modelo Nernst-Planck, enquanto que os dados de equilíbrio são bem ajustados pelas isotérmicas de Langmuir e de Freundlich. Os parâmetros termodinâmicos, ΔG° and ΔH° indicam que a remoção de Hg2+ pelo ETS-4 é um processo espontâneo e exotérmico. A elevada eficiência do ETS-4 é confirmada pelos valores da capacidade de remoção de outros materiais para os iões Hg2+, descritos na literatura. A utilização de coluna de ETS-4 preparada no nosso laboratório, para a remoção em contínuo de Hg2+ confirma que este material apresenta um grande potencial para ser utilizado no tratamento de águas. ABSTRACT: Mercury is one of the most toxic heavy metals, exhibiting a persistent character in the environment and biota as well as bioamplification and bioaccumulation along the food chain. Natural inputs combined with the global anthropogenic sources make mercury pollution a planetary-scale problem, and strict environmental policies on metal discharges have been enforced. The development of efficient new materials and clean-up technologies for removing mercury from effluents is, thus, timely. In this context, in my study, several microporous materials from two families, titanosilicates and zirconosilicates were investigated in order to assess their Hg2+ sorption capacity and removal efficiency, under different operating conditions. In general, almost all microporous materials studied exhibited high removal efficiencies, confirming that they are good ion exchangers and have potential to be used as Hg2+ decontaminant agents. Titanosilicate ETS-4 was the material most studied here, by its highest removal efficiency (>98%) and lowest mass necessary to attain it. Moreover, according with the Portuguese legislation (DL 236/98) it is possible to attain drinking water quality (i.e. [Hg2+]< 1.0 μg⋅dm-3) by treating a solution with a Hg2+ concentration equal to the maximum value admissible for effluents discharges into water bodies (50 μg⋅dm-3), using only 4 mg⋅dm-3 of ETS-4. Even in the presence of major freshwater cations, ETS-4 removal efficiency remains high. Like for other adsorbents, the sorption capacity of ETS-4 for Hg2+ ions is strongly dependent on the operating conditions, such as contact time, mass, initial Hg2+ concentration and solution pH and, to a lesser extent, temperature. The optimum operating conditions found for ETS-4 are very attractive from the industrial point of view because the application of ETS-4 for the treatment of wastewater and/or industrial effluents will not require larges amounts of adsorbent, neither energy supply for temperature adjustments becoming the removal process economically competitive. These conditions become even more interesting in the case of medical institutions liquid, nickel electroplating process, copper smelter, gold ore tailings and chlor-alkali effluents, since no significant pH adjustments to the effluent are necessary. The ion exchange kinetics of Hg2+ uptake is successfully described by the Nernst-Planck based model, while the ion exchange equilibrium is well fitted by both Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms. Moreover, the feasibility of the removal process was confirmed by the thermodynamic parameters (ΔG° and ΔH°) which indicate that the Hg2+ sorption by ETS-4 is spontaneous and exothermic. The higher efficiency of ETS-4 for Hg2+ ions is corroborate by the values reported in literature for the sorption capacity of other adsorbents for Hg2+ ions. The use of an ETS-4 fixed-bed ion exchange column, manufactured in our laboratory, in the continuous removal of Hg2+ ions from solutions confirms that this titanosilicate has potential to be used in industrial water treatment.

Diamond microelectrodes for corrosion studies

Este trabalho teve como objetivos a produção, caracterização e aplicação de microelétrodos (MEs) de diamante como sensores amperométricos e potenciométricos em sistemas de corrosão nos quais a agressividade do meio e a presença de produtos de corrosão, constituem obstáculos que podem diminuir o desempenho, ou inviabilizar a utilização, de outros tipos de sensores. Os microeléctrodos são baseados em filmes finos de diamante dopado com boro (BDD – Boron Doped Diamond) depositados sobre fios de tungsténio afiados, através do método de deposição química a partir da fase vapor, assistida por filamento quente (HFCVD – Hot Filament Chemical Vapor Deposition). A otimização das diversas etapas de fabricação dos MEs deu origem ao desenvolvimento de um novo sistema de afiamento eletroquímico para obtenção destes fios e a várias opções para a obtenção dos filmes de diamante condutor e seu isolamento com resinas para exposição apenas da ponta cilíndrica. A qualidade cristalina dos filmes de diamante foi avaliada por espectroscopia de Raman. Esta informação foi complementada com uma caracterização microestrutural dos filmes de diamante por microscopia eletrónica de varrimento (SEM), em que se fez a identificação da tipologia dos cristais como pertencendo às gamas de diamante nanocristalino ou microcristalino. Os filmes de BDD foram utilizados na sua forma não modificada, com terminações em hidrogénio e também com modificação da superfície através de tratamentos de plasma RF de CF4 e O2 indutores de terminações C-F no primeiro caso e de grupos C=O, C-O-C e C-OH no segundo, tal como determinado por XPS. A caracterização eletroquímica dos MEs não modificados revelou uma resposta voltamétrica com elevada razão sinal/ruído e baixa corrente capacitiva, numa gama de polarização quasi-ideal com extensão de 3 V a 4 V, dependente dos parâmetros de crescimento e pós-tratamentos de superfície. Estudou-se a reversibilidade de algumas reações heterogéneas com os pares redox Fe(CN)6 3-/4- e FcOH0/+ e verificou-se que a constante cinética, k0, é mais elevada em elétrodos com terminações em hidrogénio, nos quais não se procedeu a qualquer modificação da superfície. Estes MEs não modificados foram também testados na deteção de Zn2+ onde se observou, por voltametria cíclica, que a detecção da redução deste ião é linear numa escala log-log na gama de 10-5-10-2 M em 5 mM NaCl. Realizaram-se também estudos em sistemas de corrosão modelares, em que os microeléctrodos foram usados como sensores amperométricos para mapear a distribuição de oxigénio e Zn2+ sobre um par galvânico Zn-Fe, com recurso a um sistema SVET (Scanning Vibrating Electrode Technique). Foi possível detetar, com resolução lateral de 100 μm, um decréscimo da concentração de O2 junto a ambos os metais e produção de catiões de zinco no ânodo. Contudo verificou-se uma significativa deposição de zinco metálico na superfície dos ME utilizados. Os MEs com superfície modificada por plasma de CF4 foram testados como sensores de oxigénio dissolvido. A calibração dos microeléctrodos foi efetuada simultaneamente por voltametria cíclica e medição óptica através de um sensor de oxigénio comercial. Determinou-se uma sensibilidade de ~0.1422 nA/μM, com um limite de deteção de 0.63 μM. Os MEs modificados com CF4 foram também testados como sensores amperométricos com os quais se observou sensibilidade ao oxigénio dissolvido em solução, tendo sido igualmente utilizados durante a corrosão galvânica de pares Zn-Fe. Em alguns casos foi conseguida sensibilidade ao ião Zn2+ sem que o efeito da contaminação superficial com zinco metálico se fizesse sentir. Os microeléctrodos tratados em plasma de CF4 permitem uma boa deteção da distribuição de oxigénio, exibindo uma resposta mais rápida que os não tratados além de maior estabilidade de medição e durabilidade. Nos MEs em que a superfície foi modificada com plasma de O2 foi possível detetar, por cronopotenciometria a corrente nula, uma sensibilidade ao pH de ~51 mV/pH numa gama de pH 2 a pH 12. Este comportamento foi associado à contribuição determinante de grupos C-O e C=O, observados por XPS com uma razão O/C de 0,16. Estes MEs foram igualmente testados durante a corrosão galvânica do par Zn-Fe onde foi possível mapear a distribuição de pH associada ao desenvolvimento de regiões alcalinas causadas pela redução do oxigénio, acima da região catódica, e de regiões ácidas decorrentes da dissolução anódica do ânodo de zinco. Com o par galvânico imerso em 50 mM NaCl registou-se uma variação de pH aproximadamente entre 4,8 acima do ânodo de zinco a 9,3 sobre o cátodo de ferro. A utilização pioneira destes MEs como sensores de pH é uma alternativa promissora aos elétrodos baseados em membranas seletivas.

Competing demands for a complex system : photosystem II repair, photoprotection and quantum yield

Photosynthesis in general is a key biological process on Earth and Photo system II (PSII) is an important component of this process. PSII is the only enzyme capable of oxidizing water and is largely responsible for the primordial build-up and present maintenance of the oxygen in the atmosphere. This thesis endeavoured to understand the link between structure and function in PSII with special focus on primary photochemistry, repair/photodamage and spectral characteristics. The deletion of the PsbU subunit ofPSII in cyanobacteria caused a decoupling of the Phycobilisomes (PBS) from PSII, likely as a result of increased rates of PSII photodamage with the PBS decoupling acting as a measure to protect PSII from further damage. Isolated fractions of spinach thylakoid membranes were utilized to characterize the heterogeneity present in the various compartments of the thylakoid membrane. It was found that the pooled PSIILHCII pigment populations were connected in the grana stack and there was also a progressive decrease in the reaction rates of primary photochemistry and antennae size of PSII as the sample origin moved from grana to stroma. The results were consistent with PSII complexes becoming damaged in the grana and being sent to the stroma for repair. The dramatic quenching of variable fluorescence and overall fluorescent yield of PSII in desiccated lichens was also studied in order to investigate the mechanism by which the quenching operated. It was determined that the source of the quenching was a novel long wavelength emitting external quencher. Point mutations to amino acids acting as ligands to chromophores of interest in PSII were utilized in cyanobacteria to determine the role of specific chromophores in energy transfer and primary photochemistry. These results indicated that the Hl14 ligated chlorophyll acts as the 'trap' chlorophyll in CP47 at low temperature and that the Q130E mutation imparts considerable changes to PSII electron transfer kinetics, essentially protecting the complex via increased non-radiative charge Photosynthesis in general is a key biological process on Earth and Photo system II (PSII) is an important component of this process. PSII is the only enzyme capable of oxidizing water and is largely responsible for the primordial build-up and present maintenance of the oxygen in the atmosphere. This thesis endeavoured to understand the link between structure and function in PSII with special focus on primary photochemistry, repair/photodamage and spectral characteristics. The deletion of the PsbU subunit ofPSII in cyanobacteria caused a decoupling of the Phycobilisomes (PBS) from PSII, likely as a result of increased rates of PSII photodamage with the PBS decoupling acting as a measure to protect PSII from further damage. Isolated fractions of spinach thylakoid membranes were utilized to characterize the heterogeneity present in the various compartments of the thylakoid membrane. It was found that the pooled PSIILHCII pigment populations were connected in the grana stack and there was also a progressive decrease in the reaction rates of primary photochemistry and antennae size of PSII as the sample origin moved from grana to stroma. The results were consistent with PSII complexes becoming damaged in the grana and being sent to the stroma for repair. The dramatic quenching of variable fluorescence and overall fluorescent yield of PSII in desiccated lichens was also studied in order to investigate the mechanism by which the quenching operated. It was determined that the source of the quenching was a novel long wavelength emitting external quencher. Point mutations to amino acids acting as ligands to chromophores of interest in PSII were utilized in cyanobacteria to determine the role of specific chromophores in energy transfer and primary photochemistry. These results indicated that the Hl14 ligated chlorophyll acts as the 'trap' chlorophyll in CP47 at low temperature and that the Q130E mutation imparts considerable changes to PSII electron transfer kinetics, essentially protecting the complex via increased non-radiative charge.