Investigating Microbial Trace-fossils and Abiotic Alteration in Hydrovolcanic Tuffs of the Fort Rock Volcanic Field, Oregon

Microbial ichnofossils in volcanic rocks provide a significant record of subsurface microbes and potentially extraterrestrial biosignatures. Here, the textures, mineralogy, and geochemistry of two continental basaltic hydrovolcanic deposits - Reed Rocks and Black Hills - in the Fort Rock Volcanic Field (FRVF) are investigated. Methods include petrographic microscopy, micro and powder X-ray diffraction, SEM/BSE/EDF imaging, energy dispersive spectroscopy, stable isotopes, and X-ray fluorescence. Petrographic analysis revealed granular and tubular textures with biogenic morphologies that include terminal enlargements, septate divisions, branching forms, spiral filaments, and ovoid bodies resembling endolithic microborings described in ocean basalts. They display evidence of behaviour and a geologic context expressing their relative age and syngenicity. Differences in abiotic alteration and the abundance/morphotype assemblage of putative microborings between the sites indicate that water/rock ratio, fluid composition and flux, temperature and secondary phase formation are influences on microboring formation. This study is the first report of reputed endolithic microborings in basalts erupted in a continental lacustrine setting.

Ligand Design for Dual Property Single Molecule Magnets

This thesis describes two different approaches for the preparation of polynuclear clusters with interesting structural, magnetic and optical properties. Firstly, exploiting p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene (TBC4) macrocycles together with selected Ln(III) ions for the assembly of emissive single molecule magnets, and secondly the preparation and coordination of a chiral mpmH ligand with selected 3d transition metal ions, working towards the discovery of chiral polynuclear clusters. In Project 1, the coordination chemistry of the TBC4 macrocycle together with Dy(III) and Tb(III) afforded two Ln6[TBC4]2 complexes that have been structurally, magnetically and optically characterized. X-ray diffraction studies reveal that both complexes contain an octahedral core of Ln6 ions capped by two fully deprotonated TBC4 macrocycles. Although the unit cells of the two complexes are very similar, the coordination geometries of their Ln(III) ions are subtly different. Variable temperature ac magnetic susceptibility studies reveal that both complexes display single molecule magnet (SMM) behaviour in zero dc field and the energy barriers and associated pre-exponential factors for each relaxation process have been determined. Low temperature solid state photoluminescence studies reveal that both complexes are emissive; however, the f-f transitions within the Dy6 complex were masked by broad emissions from the TBC4 ligand. In contrast, the Tb(III) complex displayed green emission with the spectrum comprising four sharp bands corresponding to 5D4 → 7FJ transitions (where J = 3, 4, 5 and 6), highlighting that energy transfer from the TBC4 macrocycle to the Tb(III) ion is more effective than to Dy. Examples of zero field Tb(III) SMMs are scarce in the chemical literature and the Tb6[TBC4]2 complex represents the first example of a Tb(III) dual property SMM assembled from a p-tert-butylcalix[4]arene macrocycle with two magnetically derived energy barriers, Ueff of 79 and 63 K. In Project 2, the coordination of both enantiomers of the chiral ligand, α-methyl-2-pyridinemethanol (mpmH) to Ni(II) and Co(II) afforded three polynuclear clusters that have been structurally and magnetically characterized. The first complex, a Ni4 cluster of stoichiometry [Ni4(O2CCMe3)4(mpm)4]·H2O crystallizes in a distorted cubane topology that is well known in Ni(II) cluster chemistry. The final two Co(II) complexes crystallize as a linear mixed valence trimer with stoichiometry [Co3(mpm)6]·(ClO4)2, and a Co4 mixed valence complex [Co(II)¬2Co(III)2(NO3)2(μ-mpm)4(ONO2)2], whose structural topology resembles that of a defective double cubane. All three complexes crystallize in chiral space groups and circular dichroism experiments further confirm that the chirality of the ligand has been transferred to the respective coordination complex. Magnetic susceptibility studies reveal that for all three complexes, there are competing ferro- and antiferromagnetic exchange interactions. The [Co(II)¬2Co(III)2(NO3)2(μ-mpm)4(ONO2)2] complex represents the first example of a chiral mixed valence Co4 cluster with a defective double cubane topology.

Magnetic field-induced cluster formation and variation of magneto-optical signals in zinc-substituted ferrofluids

Fine magnetic particles (size≅100 Å) belonging to the series ZnxFe1−xFe2O4 were synthesized by cold co-precipitation methods and their structural properties were evaluated using X-ray diffraction. Magnetization studies have been carried out using vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) showing near-zero loss loop characteristics. Ferrofluids were then prepared employing these fine magnetic powders using oleic acid as surfactant and kerosene as carrier liquid by modifying the usually reported synthesis technique in order to induce anisotropy and enhance the magneto-optical signals. Liquid thin films of these fluids were prepared and field-induced laser transmission through these films was studied. The transmitted light intensity decreases at the centre with applied magnetic field in a linear fashion when subjected to low magnetic fields and saturate at higher fields. This is in accordance with the saturation in cluster formation. The pattern exhibited by these films in the presence of different magnetic fields was observed with the help of a CCD camera and was recorded photographically.

Quantum suppression of shot noise in field emitters

We have analyzed the shot noise of electron emission under strong applied electric fields within the Landauer-Bttiker scheme. In contrast to the previous studies of vacuum-tube emitters, we show that in new generation electron emitters, scaled down to the nanometer dimensions, shot noise much smaller than the Schottky noise is observable. Carbon nanotube field emitters are among possible candidates to observe the effect of shot-noise suppression caused by quantum partitioning.

Magnetic field-induced cluster formation and variation of magneto-optical signals in zinc-substituted ferrofluids

Fine magnetic particles (sizeffi100A ˚ ) belonging to the series ZnxFe1 xFe2O4 were synthesized by cold co-precipitation methods and their structural properties were evaluated using X-ray diffraction. Magnetization studies have been carried out using vibrating sample magnetometry (VSM) showing near-zero loss loop characteristics. Ferrofluids were then prepared employing these fine magnetic powders using oleic acid as surfactant and kerosene as carrier liquid by modifying the usually reported synthesis technique in order to induce anisotropy and enhance the magneto-optical signals. Liquid thin films of these fluids were prepared and field-induced laser transmission through these films was studied. The transmitted light intensity decreases at the centre with applied magnetic field in a linear fashion when subjected to low magnetic fields and saturate at higher fields. This is in accordance with the saturation in cluster formation. The pattern exhibited by these films in the presence of different magnetic fields was observed with the help of a CCD camera and was recorded photographically

Organic field-effect transistors and phototransistors based on amorphous materials

A comparison between the charge transport properties in low molecular amorphous thin films of spiro-linked compound and their corresponding parent compound has been demonstrated. The field-effect transistor method is used for extracting physical parameters such as field-effect mobility of charge carriers, ON/OFF ratios, and stability. In addition, phototransistors have been fabricated and demonstrated for the first time by using organic materials. In this case, asymmetrically spiro-linked compounds are used as active materials. The active materials used in this study can be divided into three classes, namely Spiro-linked compounds (symmetrically spiro-linked compounds), the corresponding parent-compounds, and photosensitive spiro-linked compounds (asymmetrically spiro-linked com-pounds). Some of symmetrically spiro-linked compounds used in this study were 2,2',7,7'-Tetrakis-(di-phenylamino)-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-TAD),2,2',7,7'-Tetrakis-(N,N'-di-p-methylphenylamino)-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-TTB), 2,2',7,7'-Tetra-(m-tolyl-phenylamino)-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-TPD), and 2,2Ž,7,7Ž-Tetra-(N-phenyl-1-naphtylamine)-9,9Ž-spirobifluorene (Spiro alpha-NPB). Related parent compounds of the symmetrically spiro-linked compound used in this study were N,N,N',N'-Tetraphenylbenzidine (TAD), N,N,N',N'-Tetrakis(4-methylphenyl)benzidine (TTB), N,N'-Bis(3-methylphenyl)-(1,1'-biphenyl)-4,4'-diamine (TPD), and N,N'-Diphenyl-N,N'-bis(1-naphthyl)-1,1'-biphenyl-4,4'-diamine (alpha-NPB). The photosensitive asymmetrically spiro-linked compounds used in this study were 2,7-bis-(N,N'-diphenylamino)-2',7'-bis(biphenyl-4-yl)-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-DPSP), and 2,7-bis-(N,N'-diphenylamino)-2',7'-bis(spirobifluorene-2-yl)-9,9'-spirobifluorene (Spiro-DPSP^2). It was found that the field-effect mobilities of charge carriers in thin films of symmetrically spiro-linked compounds and their corresponding parent compounds are in the same order of magnitude (~10^-5 cm^2/Vs). However, the thin films of the parent compounds were easily crystallized after the samples have been exposed in ambient atmosphere and at room temperature for three days. In contrast, the thin films and the transistor characteristics of symmetrically spiro-linked compound did not change significantly after the samples have been stored in ambient atmosphere and at room temperature for several months. Furthermore, temperature dependence of the mobility was analyzed in two models, namely the Arrhenius model and the Gaussian Disorder model. The Arrhenius model tends to give a high value of the prefactor mobility. However, it is difficult to distinguish whether the temperature behaviors of the material under consideration follows the Arrhenius model or the Gaussian Disorder model due to the narrow accessible range of the temperatures. For the first time, phototransistors have been fabricated and demonstrated by using organic materials. In this case, asymmetrically spiro-linked compounds are used as active materials. Intramolecular charge transfer between a bis(diphenylamino)biphenyl unit and a sexiphenyl unit leads to an increase in charge carrier density, providing the amplification effect. The operational responsivity of better than 1 A/W can be obtained for ultraviolet light at 370 nm, making the device interesting for sensor applications. This result offers a new potential application of organic thin film phototransistors as low-light level and low-cost visible blind ultraviolet photodetectors.

Studies on arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) in the Alentejo (Portugal) using pea mutants resistant to AM fungi as a control tool for field conditions

The utilization and management of arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) symbiosis may improve production and sustainability of the cropping system. For this purpose, native AM fungi (AMF) were sought and tested for their efficiency to increase plant growth by enhanced P uptake and by alleviation of drought stress. Pot experiments with safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and pea (Pisum sativum) in five soils (mostly sandy loamy Luvisols) and field experiments with peas were carried out during three years at four different sites. Host plants were grown in heated soils inoculated with AMF or the respective heat sterilized inoculum. In the case of peas, mutants resistant to AMF colonization were used as non-mycorrhizal controls. The mycorrhizal impact on yields and its components, transpiration, and P and N uptake was studied in several experiments, partly under varying P and N levels and water supply. Screening of native AMF by most probable number bioassays was not very meaningful. Soil monoliths were placed in the open to simulate field conditions. Inoculation with a native AMF mix improved grain yield, shoot and leaf growth variables as compared to control. Exposed to drought, higher soil water depletion of mycorrhizal plants resulted in a haying-off effect. The growth response to this inoculum could not be significantly reproduced in a subsequent open air pot experiment at two levels of irrigation and P fertilization, however, safflower grew better at higher P and water supply by multiples. The water use efficiency concerning biomass was improved by the AMF inoculum in the two experiments. Transpiration rates were not significantly affected by AM but as a tendency were higher in non-mycorrhizal safflower. A fundamental methodological problem in mycorrhiza field research is providing an appropriate (negative) control for the experimental factor arbuscular mycorrhiza. Soil sterilization or fungicide treatment have undesirable side effects in field and greenhouse settings. Furthermore, artificial rooting, temperature and light conditions in pot experiments may interfere with the interpretation of mycorrhiza effects. Therefore, the myc- pea mutant P2 was tested as a non-mycorrhizal control in a bioassay to evaluate AMF under field conditions in comparison to the symbiotic isogenetic wild type of var. FRISSON as a new integrative approach. However, mutant P2 is also of nod- phenotype and therefore unable to fix N2. A 3-factorial experiment was carried out in a climate chamber at high NPK fertilization to examine the two isolines under non-symbiotic and symbiotic conditions. P2 achieved the same (or higher) biomass as wild type both under good and poor water supply. However, inoculation with the AMF Glomus manihot did not improve plant growth. Differences of grain and straw yields in field trials were large (up to 80 per cent) between those isogenetic pea lines mainly due to higher P uptake under P and water limited conditions. The lacking N2 fixation in mutants was compensated for by high mineral N supply as indicated by the high N status of the pea mutant plants. This finding was corroborated by the results of a major field experiment at three sites with two levels of N fertilization. The higher N rate did not affect grain or straw yields of the non-fixing mutants. Very efficient AMF were detected in a Ferric Luvisol on pasture land as revealed by yield levels of the evaluation crop and by functional vital staining of highly colonized roots. Generally, levels of grain yield were low, at between 40 and 980 kg ha-1. An additional pot trial was carried out to elucidate the strong mycorrhizal effect in the Ferric Luvisol. A triplication of the plant equivalent field P fertilization was necessary to compensate for the mycorrhizal benefit which was with five times higher grain yield very similar to that found in the field experiment. However, the yield differences between the two isolines were not always plausible as the evaluation variable because they were also found in (small) field test trials with apparently sufficient P and N supply and in a soil of almost no AMF potential. This similarly occurred for pea lines of var. SPARKLE and its non-fixing mycorrhizal (E135) and non-symbiotic (R25) isomutants, which were tested in order to exclude experimentally undesirable benefits by N2 fixation. In contrast to var. FRISSON, SPARKLE was not a suitable variety for Mediterranean field conditions. This raises suspicion putative genetic defects other than symbiotic ones may be effective under field conditions, which would conflict with the concept of an appropriate control. It was concluded that AMF resistant plants may help to overcome fundamental problems of present research on arbuscular mycorrhiza, but may create new ones.

Nutrient cycling and field-based partial nutrient balances in two mountain oases of Oman

Little is known about nutrient fluxes as a criterion to assess the sustainability of traditional irrigation agriculture in eastern Arabia. In this study GIS-based field research on terraced cropland and groves of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) was conducted over 2 years in two mountain oases of northern Oman to determine their role as hypothesized sinks for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K). At Balad Seet 55% of the 385 fields received annual inputs of 100–500 kg N ha^-1 and 26% received 500–1400 kg N ha^-1. No N was applied to 19% of the fields which were under fallow. Phosphorus was applied annually at 1–90 kg ha^-1 on 46% of the fields, whereas 27% received 90–210 kg ha^-1. No K was applied to 27% of the fields, 32% received 1–300 kg K ha^-1, and the remaining fields received up to 1400 kg ha^-1. At Maqta N-inputs were 61–277 kg ha^-1 in palm groves and 112–225 kg ha^-1 in wheat (Triticum spp.) fields, respective P inputs were 9–40 and 14–29 kg ha^-1, and K inputs were 98–421 and 113–227 kg ha^-1. For cropland, partial oasis balances (comprising inputs of manure, mineral fertilizers, N2-fixation and irrigation water, and outputs of harvested products) were similar for both oases, with per hectare surpluses of 131 kg N, 37 kg P, and 84 kg K at Balad Seet and of 136 kg N, 16 kg P and 66 kg K at Maqta. This was despite the fact that N2-fixation by alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.), estimated at up to 480 kg ha^-1 yr^-1 with an average total dry matter of 22 t ha^-1, contributed to the cropland N-balance only at the former site. Respective palm grove surpluses, in contrast were with 303 kg N, 38 kg P, and 173 kg K ha^-1 much higher at Balad Seet than with 84 kg N, 14 kg P, and 91 kg K ha^-1 at Maqta. The data show that both oases presently are large sinks for nutrients. Potential gaseous and leaching losses could at least partly be controlled by a decrease in nutrient input intensity and careful incorporation of manure.

Development of mechanical methods for cell-tray propagation and field transplanting of dwarf napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.)

Since dwarf napiergrass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach.) must be propagated vegetatively due to lack of viable seeds, root splitting and stem cuttings are generally used to obtain true-to-type plant populations. These ordinary methods are laborious and costly, and are the greatest barriers for expanding the cultivation area of this crop. The objectives of this research were to develop nursery production of dwarf napiergrass in cell trays and to compare the efficiency of mechanical versus manual methods for cell-tray propagation and field transplanting. After defoliation of herbage either by a sickle (manually) or hand-mowing machine, every potential aerial tiller bud was cut to a single one for transplanting into cell trays as stem cuttings and placed in a glasshouse over winter. The following June, nursery plants were trimmed to a 25–cm length and transplanted in an experimental field (sandy soil) with 20,000 plants ha^(−1) either by shovel (manually) or Welsh onion planter. Labour time was recorded for each process. The manual defoliation of plants required 44% more labour time for preparing the stem cuttings (0.73 person-min. stemcutting^(−1)) compared to using hand-mowing machinery (0.51 person-min. stem-cutting^(−1)). In contrast, labour time for transplanting required an extra 0.30 person-min. m^(−2) (14%) using the machinery compared to manual transplanting, possibly due to the limited plot size for machinery operation. The transplanting method had no significant effect on plant establishment or plant growth, except for herbage yield 110 days after planting. Defoliation of herbage by machinery, production using a cell-tray nursery and mechanical transplanting reduced the labour intensity of dwarf napiergrass propagation.

THz Plasma Waves in Field-Effect-Transistors: A Monte Carlo Study

Sensing with electromagnetic waves having frequencies in the Terahertz-range is a very attractive investigative method with applications in fundamental research and industrial settings. Up to now, a lot of sources and detectors are available. However, most of these systems are bulky and have to be used in controllable environments such as laboratories. In 1993 Dyakonov and Shur suggested that plasma waves developing in field-effect-transistors can be used to emit and detect THz-radiation. Later on, it was shown that these plasma waves lead to rectification and allows for building efficient detectors. In contrast to the prediction that these plasma waves lead to new promising solid-state sources, only a few weak sources are known up to now. This work studies THz plasma waves in semiconductor devices using the Monte Carlo method in order to resolve this issue. A fast Monte Carlo solver was developed implementing a nonparabolic bandstructure representation of the used semiconductors. By investigating simplified field-effect-transistors it was found that the plasma frequency follows under equilibrium conditions the analytical predictions. However, no current oscillations were found at room temperature or with a current flowing in the channel. For more complex structures, consisting of ungated and gated regions, it was found that the plasma frequency does not follow the value predicted by the dispersion relation of the gated nor the ungated device.

Response of organically managed grassland to available phosphorus and potassium in the soil and supplementary fertilization: field trials using grass-clover leys cut for silage

Effective use and recycling of manures together with occasional and judicious use of supplementary fertilizing materials forms the basis for management of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) within organic farming systems. Replicated field trials were established at three sites across the UK to compare the supply of P and K to grass-clover swards cut for silage from a range of fertilizing materials, and to assess the usefulness of routine soil tests for P and K in organic farming systems. None of the fertilizing materials (farmyard manure, rock phosphate, Kali vinasse, volcanic tuff) significantly increased silage yields, nor was P offtake increased. However, farmyard manure and Kali vinasse proved effective sources of K to grass and clover in the short to medium term. Available P (measured as Olsen-P) showed no clear relationship with crop P offtake in these trials. In contrast, available K (measured by ammonium nitrate extraction) proved a useful measurement to predict K availability to crops and support K management decisions.

Field trial using bone meal amendments to remediate mine waste derived soil contaminated with zinc, lead and cadmium

Bone meal amendments are being considered as a remediation method for metal-contaminated wastes. In various forms (biogenic, geogenic or synthetic), apatite, the principal mineral constituent of bone, has shown promise as an amendment to remediate metal-contaminated soils via the formation of insoluble phosphates of Pb and possibly other metals. The efficacy of commercially available bovine bone meal in this role was investigated in a field trial at Nenthead, Cumbria with a mine waste derived soil contaminated with Zn, Pb and Cd. Two 5 m(2) plots were set up: the first as a control and the second, a treatment plot where the soil was thoroughly mixed with bone meal to a depth of 50 cm at a soil to amendment ratio of 25:1 by weight. An array of soil solution samplers (Rhizon SMS (TM)) were installed in both plots and the soil pore water was collected and analysed for Ca, Cd, Zn and Pb regularly over a period of 2 a. Concurrently with the field trial, a laboratory trial with 800 mm high and 100 mm wide leaching Columns Was conducted using identical samplers and with soil from the held site. A substantial release of Zn, Pb, Cd and Ca was observed associated with the bone meal treatment. This release was transient in the case of the leaching columns, and showed seasonal variation in the case of the field trial. It is proposed that this effect resulted from metal complexation with organic acids released during breakdown of the bone meal organic fraction and was facilitated by the relatively high soil pH of 7.6-8.0. Even after this transient release effect had subsided or when incinerated bone meal was substituted in order to eliminate the organic fraction, no detectable decrease in dissolved metals was observed and no P was detected in solution, in contrast with an earlier small column laboratory study. It is concluded that due to the relative insolubility of apatite at above-neutral pH, the rate of supply of phosphate to soil solution was insufficient to result in significant precipitation of metal phosphates and that this may limit the effectiveness of the method to more acidic soils. (c) 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Converting the nanodomains of a diblock-copolymer thin film from spheres to cylinders with an external electric field

We investigate the ability of an applied electric field to convert the morphology of a diblock-copolymer thin film from a monolayer of spherical domains embedded in the matrix to cylindrical domains that penetrate through the matrix. As expected, the applied field increases the relative stability of cylindrical domains, while simultaneously reducing the energy barrier that impedes the transition to cylinders. The effectiveness of the field is enhanced by a large dielectric contrast between the two block-copolymer components, particularly when the low-dielectric contrast component forms the matrix. Furthermore, the energy barrier is minimized by selecting sphere-forming diblock copolymers that are as compositionally symmetric as possible. Our calculations, which are the most quantitatively reliable to date, are performed using a numerically precise spectral algorithm based on self-consistent-field theory supplemented with an exact treatment for linear dielectric materials.

On integral equation and least squares methods for scattering by diffraction gratings

In this paper we consider the scattering of a plane acoustic or electromagnetic wave by a one-dimensional, periodic rough surface. We restrict the discussion to the case when the boundary is sound soft in the acoustic case, perfectly reflecting with TE polarization in the EM case, so that the total field vanishes on the boundary. We propose a uniquely solvable first kind integral equation formulation of the problem, which amounts to a requirement that the normal derivative of the Green's representation formula for the total field vanish on a horizontal line below the scattering surface. We then discuss the numerical solution by Galerkin's method of this (ill-posed) integral equation. We point out that, with two particular choices of the trial and test spaces, we recover the so-called SC (spectral-coordinate) and SS (spectral-spectral) numerical schemes of DeSanto et al., Waves Random Media, 8, 315-414 1998. We next propose a new Galerkin scheme, a modification of the SS method that we term the SS* method, which is an instance of the well-known dual least squares Galerkin method. We show that the SS* method is always well-defined and is optimally convergent as the size of the approximation space increases. Moreover, we make a connection with the classical least squares method, in which the coefficients in the Rayleigh expansion of the solution are determined by enforcing the boundary condition in a least squares sense, pointing out that the linear system to be solved in the SS* method is identical to that in the least squares method. Using this connection we show that (reflecting the ill-posed nature of the integral equation solved) the condition number of the linear system in the SS* and least squares methods approaches infinity as the approximation space increases in size. We also provide theoretical error bounds on the condition number and on the errors induced in the numerical solution computed as a result of ill-conditioning. Numerical results confirm the convergence of the SS* method and illustrate the ill-conditioning that arises.

Effect of field margins on moths depends on species mobility: Field-based evidence for landscape-scale conservation

Agri-environment schemes (AES) are widely used policy instruments intended to combat widespread biodiversity declines across agricultural landscapes. Here, using a light trapping and mark-release-recapture study at a field-scale on nine common and widespread larger moth species, we investigate the effect of wide field margins (a popular current scheme option) and the presence of hedgerow trees (a potential scheme option in England) on moth abundance. Of these, we show that wide field margins positively affected abundances, although species did not all respond in the same way. We demonstrate that this variation can be attributed to species-specific mobility characteristics. Those species for which the effect of wide margins was strongest covered shorter distances, and were more frequently recaptured at their site of first capture. This demonstrates that the standard, field-scale uptake of AES may be effective only for less mobile species. We discuss that a landscape-scale approach, in contrast, could deliver significant biodiversity gains, as our results indicate that such an approach (perhaps delivered through targeting farmers to join AES) would be effective for the majority of wider countryside species, irrespective of their mobility level. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.