The competition–performance relation: a meta-analytic review and test of the opposing processes model of competition and performance

What is the relation between competition and performance? The present research addresses this important multidisciplinary question by conducting a meta-analysis of existing empirical work and by proposing a new conceptual model—the opposing processes model of competition and performance. This model was tested by conducting an additional meta-analysis and 3 new empirical studies. The first meta-analysis revealed that there is no noteworthy relation between competition and performance. The second meta-analysis showed, in accord with the opposing processes model, that the absence of a direct effect is the result of inconsistent mediation via achievement goals: Competition prompts performance-approach goals which, in turn, facilitate performance; and competition also prompts performance-avoidance goals which, in turn, undermine performance. These same direct and mediational findings were also observed in the 3 new empirical studies (using 3 different conceptualizations of competition and attending to numerous control variables). Our findings provide both interpretational clarity regarding past research and conceptual guidance regarding future research on the competition–performance relation.

A 3 × 2 achievement goal model

In the present research, a 3 × 2 model of achievement goals is proposed and tested. The model is rooted in the definition and valence components of competence, and encompasses 6 goal constructs: task-approach, task-avoidance, self-approach, self-avoidance, other-approach, and other-avoidance. The results from 2 studies provided strong support for the proposed model, most notably the need to separate task-based and self-based goals. Studies 1 and 2 yielded data establishing the 3 × 2 structure of achievement goals, and Study 2 documented the antecedents and consequences of each of the goals in the 3 × 2 model. Terminological, conceptual, and applied issues pertaining to the 3 × 2 model are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(journal abstract)

A longitudinal analysis of self‐regulation and well-being: avoidance personal goals, avoidance coping, stress generation, and subjective well-being

We conducted 2 longitudinal meditational studies to test an integrative model of goals, stress and coping, and well‐being. Study 1 documented avoidance personal goals as an antecedent of life stressors and life stressors as a partial mediator of the relation between avoidance goals and longitudinal change in subjective well‐being (SWB). Study 2 fully replicated Study 1 and likewise validated avoidance goals as an antecedent of avoidance coping and avoidance coping as a partial mediator of the relation between avoidance goals and longitudinal change in SWB. It also showed that avoidance coping partially mediates the link between avoidance goals and life stressors and validated a sequential meditational model involving both avoidance coping and life stressors. The aforementioned results held when controlling for social desirability, basic traits, and general motivational dispositions. The findings are discussed with regard to the integration of various strands of research on self‐regulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(journal abstract)

Acquisition of Pavlovian Fear Conditioning Using beta-Adrenoceptor Activation of the Dorsal Premammillary Nucleus as an Unconditioned Stimulus to Mimic Live Predator-Threat Exposure

In the present work, we sought to mimic the internal state changes in response to a predator threat by pharmacologically stimulating the brain circuit involved in mediating predator fear responses, and explored whether this stimulation would be a valuable unconditioned stimulus (US) in an olfactory fear conditioning paradigm (OFC). The dorsal premammillary nucleus (PMd) is a key brain structure in the neural processing of anti-predatory defensive behavior and has also been shown to mediate the acquisition and expression of anti-predatory contextual conditioning fear responses. Rats were conditioned by pairing the US, which was an intra-PMd microinjection of isoproterenol (ISO; beta-adrenoceptor agonist), with amyl acetate odor-the conditioned stimulus (CS). ISO (10 and 40 nmol) induced the acquisition of the OFC and the second-order association by activation of beta-1 receptors in the PMd. Furthermore, similar to what had been found for contextual conditioning to a predator threat, atenolol (beta-1 receptor antagonist) in the PMd also impaired the acquisition and expression of OFC promoted by ISO. Considering the strong glutamatergic projections from the PMd to the dorsal periaqueductal gray (dPAG), we tested how the glutamatergic blockade of the dPAG would interfere with the OFC induced by ISO. Accordingly, microinjections of NMDA receptor antagonist (AP5, 6 nmol) into the dPAG were able to block both the acquisition, and partially, the expression of the OFC. In conclusion, we have found that PMd beta-1 adrenergic stimulation is a good model to mimic predatory threat-induced internal state changes, and works as a US able to mobilize the same systems involved in the acquisition and expression of predator-related contextual conditioning. Neuropsychopharmacology (2011) 36, 926-939; doi:10.1038/npp.2010.231; published online 5 January 2011

A comparative study on the effects of the benzodiazepine midazolam and the dopamine agents, apomorphine and sulpiride, on rat behavior in the two-way avoidance test

In recent years. studies in behavioral pharmacology have shown the involvement of dopaminergic mechanisms in avoidance behavior as assessed by the two-way active avoidance test (CAR). Changes in dopaminergic transmission also occur in response to particularly threatening challenges. However, studies on the effects of benzodiazepine (BZD) drugs ill this test are still unclear. Given the interplay of dopamine and other neurotransmitters in the neurobiology of anxiety and schizophrenia the aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of systemic administration of midazolam, the dopaminergic agonist apomorphine, and the D(2) receptor antagonist sulpiride using the CAR, a test that shows good sensitivity to typical neuroleptic drugs. Whereas midazolam did not alter the avoidance response. apomorphine increased and sulpiride reduced them in this test. Escape was not affected by any drug treatments. Heightened avoidance was not associated with the increased motor activity caused by apomorphine. In contrast with the benzodiazepine midazolam, activation of post-synaptic D(2) receptors with apomorphine facilitates, whereas the D(2) receptor antagonism with sulpiride inhibited the acquisition of the avoidance behavior. Together, these results bring additional evidence for a role of D(2) mechanisms in the acquisition of the active avoidance. (C) 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Role of glutamate NMDA receptors and nitric oxide located within the periaqueductal gray on defensive behaviors in mice confronted by predator

The midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG) is part of the brain system involved in active defense reactions to threatening stimuli. Glutamate N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor activation within the dorsal column of the PAG (dPAG) leads to autonomic and behavioral responses characterized as the fear reaction. Nitric oxide (NO) has been proposed to be a mediator of the aversive action of glutamate, since the activation of NMDA receptors in the brain increases NO synthesis. We investigated the effects of intra-dPAG infusions of NMDA on defensive behaviors in mice pretreated with a neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) inhibitor [N omega-propyl-l-arginine (NPLA)], in the same midbrain site, during a confrontation with a predator in the rat exposure test (RET). Male Swiss mice received intra-dPAG injections of NPLA (0.1 or 0.4 nmol/0.1 mu l), and 10 min later, they were infused with NMDA (0.04 nmol/0.1 mu l) into the dPAG. After 10 min, each mouse was placed in the RET. NMDA treatment enhanced avoidance behavior from the predator and markedly increased freezing behavior. These proaversive effects of NMDA were prevented by prior injection of NPLA. Furthermore, defensive behaviors (e.g., avoidance, risk assessment, freezing) were consistently reduced by the highest dose of NPLA alone, suggesting an intrinsic effect of nitric oxide on defensive behavior in mice exposed to the RET. These findings suggest a potential role of glutamate NMDA receptors and NO in the dPAG in the regulation of defensive behaviors in mice during a confrontation with a predator in the RET.

Psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Fear of Complications Questionnaire

Objectives: To translate and evaluate the psychometric properties of the Swedish version of the Fear of Complications Questionnaire. Design: Cross-sectional study design and scale development. Settings: Totally, 469 adults (response rate 63.5%) with Type 1 diabetes completed the questionnaires. Participants were recruited from two university hospitals in Sweden. Participants: Eligible patients were those who met the following inclusion criteria: diagnosed with Type 1 diabetes, diabetes duration of at least 1 year and aged at least 18 years. Methods: The Fear of Complications Questionnaire was translated using the forward-backward translation method. Factor analyses of the questionnaire were performed in two steps using both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis. Convergent validity was examined using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and the Fear of Hypoglycaemia Fear Survey. Internal consistency was estimated using Cronbach’s alpha.Results: Exploratory factor analysis supported a two-factor solution. One factor contained three items having to do with fear of kidney-related complications and one factor included the rest of items concerning fear of other diabetes-related complications, as well as fear of complications in general. Internal consistency was high Cronbach’s alpha 0.96. The findings also gave support for convergent validity, with significant positive correlations between measures (r = 0.51 to 0.54). Conclusion: The clinical relevance of the identified two-factor model with a structure of one dominant subdomain may be considered. We suggest, however a one-factor model covering all the items as a relevant basis to assess fear of complications among people with Type 1 diabetes.

Role of glutamate NMDA receptors and nitric oxide located within the periaqueductal gray on defensive behaviors in mice confronted by predator

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Influence of the estrous cycle on the behavior of rats in the elevated T-maze

The elevated T-maze is an animal anxiety model which can discriminate between anxiety-like and fear-like behaviors. The estrous cycle is an important variable of the response in animal anxiety tests and is known to affect other models. The aim of the present study was to investigate the influence of the estrous cycle on behavior displayed in the elevated T-maze test. Seventeen male and 60 female rats were submitted to one session in this test, with the females being screened for the estrous cycle and divided into groups according to the various phases. The elevated T-maze had three arms of equal dimensions (50 cm x 10 cm), one enclosed by 40-cm high walls and perpendicular to the others, the apparatus being elevated 50cm above the floor. Each rat was placed in the end of the enclosed arm and the latency for it to leave this arm was recorded. These measurements were repeated three times separated by 30-s intervals (passive avoidance). After trial 3, each rat was placed at the distal end of the right open arm and the latency to exit this arm was recorded. Whenever latencies were greater than 300 s the trial was finished. The results demonstrated females in diestrus exhibited anxiety-like behaviors while females in metaestrus behaved in a similar way as the males. There were no differences between groups in fear-like behaviors. The results also indicate the elevated T-maze to be a sensitive test to measure anxiety. (C) 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Role of 5-HT in stress, anxiety, and depression

There are conflicting results on the function of 5-HT in anxiety and depression. To reconcile this evidence, Deakin and Graeff have suggested that the ascending 5-HT pathway that originates in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) and innervates the amygdala and frontal cortex facilitates conditioned fear, while the DRN-periventricular pathway innervating the periventricular and periaqueductal gray matter inhibits inborn fight/flight reactions to impending danger, pain, or asphyxia. To study the role of the DRN 5-HT system in anxiety, we microinjected 8-OH-DPAT into the DRN to inhibit 5 HT release. This treatment impaired inhibitory avoidance (conditioned fear) without affecting one-way escape (unconditioned fear) in the elevated T-maze, a new animal model of anxiety. We also applied three drug treatments that increase 5-HT release from DRN terminals: 1) intra-DRN microinjection of the benzodiazepine inverse agonist FG 4172, 2) intra-DRN microinjection of the excitatory amino acid kainic acid, and 3) intraperitoneal injection of the 5-HT releaser and uptake blocker D-fenfluramine. All treatments enhanced inhibitory avoidance in the T-maze. D-Fenfluramine and intra-DRN kainate also decreased one-way escape. In healthy volunteers, D-fenfluramine and the 5-HT agonist mCPP (mainly 5-HT2C) increased, while the antagonists ritanserin (5-HT2A/(2C)) and SR 46349B (5-HT2A) decreased skin conductance responses to an aversively conditioned stimulus (tone). In addition, D-fenfluramine decreased, whereas ritanserin increased subjective anxiety induced by simulated public speaking, thought to represent unconditioned anxiety. Overall, these results are compatible with the above hypothesis. Deakin and Graeff have suggested that the pathway connecting the median raphe nucleus (MRN) to the dorsal hippocampus promotes resistance to chronic, unavoidable stress. In the present study, we found that 24 h after electrolytic lesion of the rat MRN glandular gastric ulcers occurred, and the immune response to the mitogen concanavalin A was depressed. Seven days after the same lesion, the ulcerogenic effect of restraint was enhanced. Microinjection of 8-OH-DPAT, the nonselective agonist 5-MeO-DMT, or the 5-HT uptake inhibitor zimelidine into the dorsal hippocampus immediately after 2 h of restraint reversed the deficits of open arm exploration in the elevated plus-maze, measured 24 h after restraint. The effect of the two last drugs was antagonized by WAY-100135, a selective 5-HT1A receptor antagonist. These results are compatible with the hypothesis that the MRN-dorsal hippocampus 5-HT system attenuates stress by facilitation of hippocampal 5-HT1A-mediated neurotransmission. Clinical implications of these results are discussed, especially with regard to panic disorder and depression.

Contrasting effects of acute and chronic treatment with imipramine and fluoxetine on inhibitory avoidance and escape responses in mice exposed to the elevated T-maze

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Ventrolateral periaqueductal gray lesion attenuates nociception but does not change anxiety-like indices or fear-induced antinociception in mice

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

Chronic administration of risperidone in a rat model of schizophrenia: A behavioural, morphological and molecular study

In the present work we analyzed the effect of the chronic administration of risperidone (2mg/kg over 65 days) on behavioural, morphological and molecular aspects in an experimental model of schizophrenia obtained by bilateral injection of ibotenic acid into the ventral hippocampus of new-born rats. Our results show that during their adult lives the animals with hippocampal lesions exhibit different alterations, mainly at behavioural level and in the gene expression of dopamine D2 and 5-HT2A receptors. However, at morphological level the study performed on the prefrontal cortex did not reveal any alterations in either the thickness or the number of cells immunoreactive for c-Fos, GFAP, CBP or PV. Overall, risperidone administration elicited a trend towards the recovery of the values previously altered by the hippocampal lesion, approaching the values seen in the animals without lesions. It may be concluded that the administration of risperidone in the schizophrenia model employed helps to improve the altered functions, with no significant negative effects. © 2013.

The effects of diazepam on the elevated T-maze are dependent on the estrous cycle of rats

In order to determine the modulation of anxiolytic and panicolytic-like effects of diazepam by the hormonal cycle of female rats, male and female rats – the latter divided per estrous cycle phase (estrus, diestrus, metaestrus and proestrus) – were tested in the elevated T-maze, a behavioral model of panic and anxiety. Diazepam (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/kg) or saline solution was injected in individual animals that were submitted to one session in the elevated T-maze 25 min after drug/saline administration. The test consisted of three avoidance trials and one escape trial, separated by a 30 s interval, during which the animals were isolated in individual cages. The avoidance trials began with the animal being placed at the end of the maze's enclosed arm. The time necessary for the animal to leave the central square was considered as the response's latency. The trials that exceeded 300 s were considered as failures. Results demonstrate a decrease in the effects of diazepam in inhibitory avoidance (anxiety) trials in females in diestrus and proestrus, but no relation of gender or estrous cycle on diazepam effects on escape trials (fear). The results support the hypothesis that down-regulation of GABAA receptors by activation of nuclear estrogen receptors and induction of PKC-mediated GABAA receptor phosphorylation by activation of surface estrogen receptors in raphe neurons underlie the modulation of diazepam sensitivity by estrogen.

Flavones from Erythrina falcata are modulators of fear memory

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)