911 resultados para Europe -- Rural conditions -- 14th-18th centuries


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Im Wassereinzugsgebiet der Aar zwischen Taunuskamm und Limburger Becken wurden 242 Erosionsschluchten, so genannte Runsen kartiert. Die vorgefundenen geomorphologischen Formen sind zum Teil mehr als 15 Meter tief, kerben- oder kastenförmig. Einige führen ein zeitweise oder ständig fließendes Gerinne. Die Untersuchung acht verschiedener Einzelbeispiele mit geomorphologischen, bodenkundlichen und kulturhistorischen Methoden ergab, dass die Erosionsschluchten in geschichtlicher Zeit entstanden sind. Damit wurden die Ergebnisse von BORK 1988, 1985, BORK et al. 1998, BAUER 1995, 1993, SEMMEL 1963, HEMPEL 1954, 1954 und HARD 1970 weitgehend bestätigt. Die Runsen an der Aar und ihrer Nebenbäche sind das Ergebnis exzessiver Erosionsprozesse, die in Folge einer erheblichen Übernutzung der Landschaft durch Köhlerei, Eisenerzverhüttung und Landwirtschaft hauptsächlich im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert ausgelöst wurden. Dabei kommt der seit 1656 betriebenen Michelbacher Hütte als landesherrliches Eisenwerk eine besondere Rolle zu. Ein weiterer Einfluss geht auf die spezifische Geofaktorenkonstellation im Untertaunus zurück. Die dort verbreiteten stark tonig verwitterten Schiefer und erodierten Parabraunerden fördern den Oberflächenabfluss, der während zeitweise auftretender Starkregenereignisse an den Hängen zum Einreißen von Erosionsschluchten führen kann . Zur Untersuchung des Phänomens wurden sowohl geomorphologische und bodenkundliche als auch historisch-kulturlandschaftgenetische Methoden herangezogen. Neben der bodenkundlichen Beprobung zahlreicher Aufschlüsse wurden auch Analysen mittels der Radiokarbonmethode, Schwermineralanalysen, Kohlholzspektren historischer Meilerplätze und die Auswertung von Archivunterlagen als Methoden herangezogen. Als grundlegendes Ergebnis liefert die vorliegende Arbeit einen umfassenden Abriss der Nutzungsgeschichte im Wassereinzugsgebiet der Aar von vorgeschichtlicher Zeit bis zum heutigen Tage. Zudem werden die naturräumlichen Einflussfaktoren, die die Entstehung von Erosionsschluchten erst ermöglichen, auf umfassende Weise dargestellt. Zwei Exkurse behandeln die Bedeutung der spätmittelalterlichen Landwehr bei Hennethal, die während der Geländearbeiten entdeckt wurde sowie die Entstehung und zeitliche Einordnung der Auelehme im Aartal.

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At the end of the middle Ages, financial savings institutions developed, largely in response to the increasingly usurious money-lending practices of the Jews and to the adaptation of church authorities to the by then well developed commercial and financial operations. It was the Franciscan Order that took the initiative to develop such institutions, first in Italy and later in other western European Mediterranean towns. These were the so-called Monte di Pieta, which lent money at low rates of interest taking objects in pawn as security. However, as they had to operate with circulating capital and on the principles of savings banks, they may be considered to be the predecessors of modern banks. Although charity was declared in the very names of these institutions, this was no longer in the sense of the medieval mercy towards the virtuous poor, but more a support for impoverished members of higher social strata, as loan applicants had to place valuable movable property in pawn, meaning that they first had to possess such property. In spite of this, the institutions had the character of the primeval accumulation of capital, although not so much for individuals as for a community or, in the latter's name, for a commune, i.e. the local authority, which at least in the cases of Koper and Piran was also the founder. However, the stagnation of trade with the hinterland and the decline in the economic power of the Venetian Republic, particularly in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, pushed pawnshops into a more miserable existence, with ups and downs linked with the irregularities of profit-making on behalf of the institution, particularly by its clerks.

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The preservation of Siberia's cultural heritage poses a serious problem. Many Siberian churches were destroyed or reconstructed, without their original form being carefully described. Mainicheva studied the question of Siberian wooden churches of the 17th-18th centuries, producing a complex analysis of their symbolism, phenomenology and morphology. Published and archival materials show that such unique churches as the Sophia Cathedral in Tobolesk (1621), the Trinity Church in Tomsk (1654) and the Church of Kazan Holy Mother in Ilimsk (1679) directly reflected the main features of medieval Russian culture combined with new perceptions of Man and the Universe. These Russian Orthodox churches have considerable significance for understanding the natural development of Russian architecture as a part of the Russian culture of permanently moving people. All these churches, which no longer exist in their original form, were built by unknown folk builders and represented a good example of non-professional architecture. Mainicheva developed full descriptions of the churches, including graphic reconstructions of their original plans and facades.

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High-resolution records of calibrated proxy data for the past millennium are fundamental to place current changes into the context of pre-industrial natural forced and unforced variability. Although the need for regional spatially-explicit comprehensive reconstructions is widely recognized, the proxy data sources are still scarce, particularly for the Southern Hemisphere and especially for South America. We present a 600-year long warm season temperature record from varved sediments of Lago Plomo, a proglacial lake of the Northern Patagonian Ice field in Southern Chile (46°59′S, 72°52′W, 203 m a.s.l.). The thickness of the bright summer sediment layer relative to the dark winter layer (measured as total brightness; % reflectance 400–730 nm) is calibrated against warm season SONDJF temperature (1900–2009; r = 0.58, p(aut) = 0.056, RE = 0.52; CE = 0.15, RMSEP = 0.28 °C; five-year triangular filtered data). In Lago Plomo, warm summer temperatures lead to enhanced glacier melt and suspended sediment transport, which results in thicker light summer layers and to brighter sediments. Although Patagonia shows pronounced regional differences in decadal temperature trends and variability, the 600 years temperature reconstruction from Lago Plomo compares favourably with other regional/continental temperature records, but also emphasizes significant regional differences for which no data and information existed so far. These regional differences seem to be real as they are also reflected in modern climate data sets (1900–2010). The reconstruction shows pronounced subdecadal – multidecadal variability with cold phases during parts of the Little Ice Age (16th and 18th centuries) and in the beginning of the 20th century. The most prominent warm phase is the 19th century which is as warm as the second half of the 20th century. The exceptional summer warmth AD 1780–1810 is also found in other archives of Northern Patagonia and Central Chile. Our record shows the delayed 20th century warming in the Southern Hemisphere. The comparison between winter precipitation and summer temperature (inter-seasonal coupling) from Lago Plomo reveals alternating phases with parallel and contrasting decadal trends of winter precipitation and summer temperature (positive and negative running correlations Rwinter PP; summer TT). This observation from the sediment proxy data is also confirmed by two sets of reanalysis data for the 20th century. Reanalysis data show that phases with negative correlations between winter precipitation and summer temperature (e.g., dry winters and warm summers) at Lago Plomo are characteristic for periods when circumpolar Westerly flow is displaced southward and enhanced around 60°S.

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The Qing emperors, who ruled over China from 1644-1911, managed to bring large parts of Inner Asia under their control and extended the territory of China to an unprecedented degree. This paper maintains that the political technique of patronage with its formalized language, its emphasis on gift exchange and expressions of courtesy is a useful concept for explaining the integration of Inner Asian confederations into the empire. By re-interpreting the obligations of gift exchange, the Qing transformed the network of personal relationships, which had to be reinforced and consolidated permanently into a system with clearly defined rules. In this process of formalization, the Lifanyuan, the Court for the Administration of the Outer Regions, played a key role. While in the early years of the dynasty, it was responsible for collecting and disseminating information concerning the various patronage relationships with Inner Asian leaders, over the course of the 17th and 18th centuries its efforts were directed at standardizing and streamlining the contacts between ethnic minorities and the state. Through the Lifanyuan, the rules and principles of patronage were maintained in a modified form even in the later part of the dynasty, when the Qing exercised control in the outer regions more directly. The paper provides an explanation for the longevity and cohesiveness of the multi-ethnic Qing empire. Based on recently published Manchu and Mongolian language archival material and the Maussian concept of gift exchange the study sheds new light on the changing self-conception of the Qing emperors.

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Este artigo apresenta algumas das principais linhas do projeto de pesquisa «Scholastica colonialis», que tem o objetivo de investigar de forma exaustiva o desenvolvimento da filosofia escolástica barroca na América Latina, durante parte significativa do período colonial, isto é, séculos 16-18. Até hoje, a principal proposta de pesquisa sobre os materiais existentes e os méritos da filosofia «colonial» e «barroca» foi aquela exemplificada pelos estudos de Walter B. Redmond. Assim, busca-se expor, resumidamente, o status quaestionis que a síntese de seus trabalhos permite concluir.

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La transmisión de la filosofía al continente americano puede rastrearse materialmente por medio del examen de las redes comerciales que procuraron la numerosa llegada de libros que alimentaron a las primeras bibliotecas coloniales. En ellas se resguardaron variadas obras filosóficas y humanísticas fueron fundamentales en la promoción y desarrollo de la cultura escrita y la educación. Al revisar algunos aspectos centrales del comercio, el control librario y la colección de obras afines en las primeras bibliotecas privadas y religiosas, se pretende reconstruir al menos en sus rasgos característicos el devenir de la filosofía en el Nuevo Mundo.

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En "Estructura y dinámica del dominio de Santo Toribio de Liébana (siglos XIII-XVI)" se trata de explicar las características diferenciales que presenta un dominio monástico del área septentrional de la Península Ibérica. En la primera parte, siglo XIII y principios del siglo XIV, se considera que la pobreza material que ostenta el cenobio, observable en el escaso volumen de la renta y en las sucesivas enajenaciones de bienes efectuadas por sectores jerarquizados locales, es el resultado de la dispar consolidación de las estructuras feudales en el espacio. Frente a áreas cercanas al emplazamiento del monasterio en donde el señor limita la movilidad campesina y extrae excedentes elevados y estables, existen otras, consideradas como la "periferia" del dominio, en donde la pervivencia del ejercicio del derecho de retorno limitaba seriamente la consolidación de la propiedad dominical señorial. En dichas áreas, la estabilización de los derechos de propiedad del señor sólo se concretó a partir de la conformación de estructuras coercitivas de poder a nivel local que anularon el ejercicio efectivo del retorno familiar. En la segunda parte, siglos XIV-XVI, se analizan las estrategias específicas que permitieron el incremento del volumen de la renta en el largo plazo. Frente a las tesis que sostienen una temprana parcelación de la reserva y una conmutación de las prestaciones de trabajo, se observa aquí, por el contrario, el aumento de su extensión en los siglos finales de la Edad Media. Al mismo tiempo se detecta un proceso de parcelación de las tenencias campesinas, impulsado por el señor, que propiciaba un incremento de los fuegos sobre los que recaían las exacciones. Ambos aspectos, apropiación señorializada del espacio y aumento de la tasa de la renta, fueron el resultado del ejercicio efectivo de la coacción política.

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En "Estructura y dinámica del dominio de Santo Toribio de Liébana (siglos XIII-XVI)" se trata de explicar las características diferenciales que presenta un dominio monástico del área septentrional de la Península Ibérica. En la primera parte, siglo XIII y principios del siglo XIV, se considera que la pobreza material que ostenta el cenobio, observable en el escaso volumen de la renta y en las sucesivas enajenaciones de bienes efectuadas por sectores jerarquizados locales, es el resultado de la dispar consolidación de las estructuras feudales en el espacio. Frente a áreas cercanas al emplazamiento del monasterio en donde el señor limita la movilidad campesina y extrae excedentes elevados y estables, existen otras, consideradas como la "periferia" del dominio, en donde la pervivencia del ejercicio del derecho de retorno limitaba seriamente la consolidación de la propiedad dominical señorial. En dichas áreas, la estabilización de los derechos de propiedad del señor sólo se concretó a partir de la conformación de estructuras coercitivas de poder a nivel local que anularon el ejercicio efectivo del retorno familiar. En la segunda parte, siglos XIV-XVI, se analizan las estrategias específicas que permitieron el incremento del volumen de la renta en el largo plazo. Frente a las tesis que sostienen una temprana parcelación de la reserva y una conmutación de las prestaciones de trabajo, se observa aquí, por el contrario, el aumento de su extensión en los siglos finales de la Edad Media. Al mismo tiempo se detecta un proceso de parcelación de las tenencias campesinas, impulsado por el señor, que propiciaba un incremento de los fuegos sobre los que recaían las exacciones. Ambos aspectos, apropiación señorializada del espacio y aumento de la tasa de la renta, fueron el resultado del ejercicio efectivo de la coacción política.

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En "Estructura y dinámica del dominio de Santo Toribio de Liébana (siglos XIII-XVI)" se trata de explicar las características diferenciales que presenta un dominio monástico del área septentrional de la Península Ibérica. En la primera parte, siglo XIII y principios del siglo XIV, se considera que la pobreza material que ostenta el cenobio, observable en el escaso volumen de la renta y en las sucesivas enajenaciones de bienes efectuadas por sectores jerarquizados locales, es el resultado de la dispar consolidación de las estructuras feudales en el espacio. Frente a áreas cercanas al emplazamiento del monasterio en donde el señor limita la movilidad campesina y extrae excedentes elevados y estables, existen otras, consideradas como la "periferia" del dominio, en donde la pervivencia del ejercicio del derecho de retorno limitaba seriamente la consolidación de la propiedad dominical señorial. En dichas áreas, la estabilización de los derechos de propiedad del señor sólo se concretó a partir de la conformación de estructuras coercitivas de poder a nivel local que anularon el ejercicio efectivo del retorno familiar. En la segunda parte, siglos XIV-XVI, se analizan las estrategias específicas que permitieron el incremento del volumen de la renta en el largo plazo. Frente a las tesis que sostienen una temprana parcelación de la reserva y una conmutación de las prestaciones de trabajo, se observa aquí, por el contrario, el aumento de su extensión en los siglos finales de la Edad Media. Al mismo tiempo se detecta un proceso de parcelación de las tenencias campesinas, impulsado por el señor, que propiciaba un incremento de los fuegos sobre los que recaían las exacciones. Ambos aspectos, apropiación señorializada del espacio y aumento de la tasa de la renta, fueron el resultado del ejercicio efectivo de la coacción política.

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The north Icelandic shelf is partly distinguished by the Tjörnes Fracture Zone featuring numerous active basins in a mud-dominated shelf environment. Late Glacial and Holocene high-resolution sedimentary records from this area have been studied with tephrochronology as the main tool for correlation and for exact timing of palaeoceanographic events in the area. Data from three new piston cores from the shelf demonstrate the importance of tephra markers for the first chronological evaluation and correlation of the cores. The correlation is extended with lithological logs and with magnetic susceptibility records. A detailed multidisciplinary study (including biostratigraphy and tephrochronology) of a late Holocene record of predominantly muddy sediments at the same location demonstrates that marked variations in the distribution of water masses occurred repeatedly through the last 4500 cal. yr. Of special interest is the exact timing of a marked drop in sea-surface temperature in the area, indicated by ice rafting debris concentration, to about 50 years before the Hekla 3 eruption, which occurred at 2980 cal. yr BP. This appears to predate most records of a general cooling event in NW Europe by a couple of centuries. Two different possible age models, one based on 14C dates combined with tephra markers and one based on tephra markers alone, are discussed in context with the problem of different marine reservoir ages of the water masses in the area.

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Crossed-arch domes are a singular type of ribbed vaults. Their characteristic feature is that the ribs that form the vault are intertwined, forming polygons or stars, leaving an empty space in the centre. The earliest known vaults of this type are found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, built ca. 960 a.C. The type spread through Spain, and the north of Africa in the 10th to the 16th Centuries, and was used by Guarini and Vittone in the 17th and 18th Centuries in Italy. However, it was used only in a few buildings. Though the literature about the structural behaviour of ribbed Gothic vaults is extensive, so far no structural analysis of crossed arch domes has been made. The purpose of this work is, first to show the way to attack such an analysis within the frame of Modern Limit Analysis of Masonry Structures (Heyman 1995), and then to apply the approach to study the stability of the dome of the Capilla de Villaviciosa. The work may give some clues to art and architectural historians to understand better the origin and development of Islamic dome architecture.