Building the foundations : skill acquisition in children

Introduction: Why we need to base childrens’ sport and physical education on the principles of dynamical systems theory and ecological psychology As the childhood years are crucial for developing many physical skills as well as establishing the groundwork leading to lifelong participation in sport and physical activities, (Orlick & Botterill, 1977, p. 11) it is essential to examine current practice to make sure it is meeting the needs of children. In recent papers (e.g. Renshaw, Davids, Chow & Shuttleworth, in press; Renshaw, Davids, Chow & Hammond, in review; Chow et al., 2009) we have highlighted that a guiding theoretical framework is needed to provide a principled approach to teaching and coaching and that the approach must be evidence- based and focused on mechanism and not just on operational issues such as practice, competition and programme management (Lyle, 2002). There is a need to demonstrate how nonlinear pedagogy underpins teaching and coaching practice for children given that some of the current approaches underpinning children’s sport and P.E. may not be leading to optimal results. For example, little time is spent undertaking physical activities (Tinning, 2006) and much of this practice is not representative of the competition demands of the performance environment (Kirk & McPhail, 2002; Renshaw et al., 2008). Proponents of a non- linear pedagogy advocate the design of practice by applying key concepts such as the mutuality of the performer and environment, the tight coupling of perception and action, and the emergence of movement solutions due to self organisation under constraints (see Renshaw, et al., in press). As skills are shaped by the unique interacting individual, task and environmental constraints in these learning environments, small changes to individual structural (e.g. factors such as height or limb length) or functional constraints (e.g. factors such as motivation, perceptual skills, strength that can be acquired), task rules, equipment, or environmental constraints can lead to dramatic changes in movement patterns adopted by learners to solve performance problems. The aim of this chapter is to provide real life examples for teachers and coaches who wish to adopt the ideas of non- linear pedagogy in their practice. Specifically, I will provide examples related to specific issues related to individual constraints in children and in particular the unique challenges facing coaches when individual constraints are changing due to growth and development. Part two focuses on understanding how cultural environmental constraints impact on children’s sport. This is an area that has received very little attention but plays a very important part in the long- term development of sporting expertise. Finally, I will look at how coaches can manipulate task constraints to create effective learning environments for young children.

DEM test, visagraph eye movement recordings, and reading ability in children

Purpose. To determine how Developmental Eye Movement (DEM) test results relate to reading eye movement patterns recorded with the Visagraph in visually normal children, and whether DEM results and recorded eye movement patterns relate to standardized reading achievement scores. Methods. Fifty-nine school-age children (age = 9.7 ± 0.6 years) completed the DEM test and had eye movements recorded with the Visagraph III test while reading for comprehension. Monocular visual acuity in each eye and random dot stereoacuity were measured and standardized scores on independently administered reading comprehension tests [reading progress test (RPT)] were obtained. Results. Children with slower DEM horizontal and vertical adjusted times tended to have slower reading rates with the Visagraph (r = -0.547 and -0.414 respectively). Although a significant correlation was also found between the DEM ratio and Visagraph reading rate (r = -0.368), the strength of the relationship was less than that between DEM horizontal adjusted time and reading rate. DEM outcome scores were not significantly associated with RPT scores. When the relative contribution of reading ability (RPT) and DEM scores was accounted for in multivariate analysis, DEM outcomes were not significantly associated with Visagraph reading rate. RPT scores were associated with Visagraph outcomes of duration of fixations (r = -0.403) and calculated reading rate (r = 0.366) but not with DEM outcomes. Conclusions.DEM outcomes can identify children whose Visagraph recorded eye movement patterns show slow reading rates. However, when reading ability is accounted for, DEM outcomes are a poor predictor of reading rate. Visagraph outcomes of duration of fixation and reading rate relate to standardized reading achievement scores; however, DEM results do not. Copyright © 2011 American Academy of Optometry.

The relationship between abdominal obesity and depression in the general population : a systematic review and meta-analysis

Obesity has been widely regarded as a public health concern because of its adverse impact on individuals’ health. Systematic reviews have been published in examining the effect of obesity on depression, but with major emphasis on general obesity as measured by the body mass index. Despite a stronger effect of abdominal obesity on individuals’ physical health outcomes, to our best knowledge, no systematic review was undertaken with regard to the relationship between abdominal obesity and depression. This paper reports the results of a systematic review and meta-analysis of cross-sectional studies examining the relationship between abdominal obesity and depression in a general population. Multiple electronic databases were searched until the end of September 2009. 15 articles were systematically reviewed and meta-analyzed. The analysis showed that the odds ratio of having depression for individuals with abdominal obesity was 1.38 (95% CI, 1.22–1.57) as compared to those who are not obese. Furthermore, it was found that this relationship did not vary with potential confounders including gender, age, measurement of depression and abdominal obesity, and study quality.

The Biodex Isokinetic Dynamometer for knee strength assessment in children : advantages and limitations

Objective: To critically appraise the Biodex System 4 isokinetic dynamometer for strength assessment of children. Methods: Appraisal was based on experiences from two independent laboratories involving testing of 213 children. Issues were recorded and the manufacturer was consulted regarding appropriate solutions. Results: The dynamometer had insufficient height adjustment for alignment of the knee for some children, requiring the construction of padding to better fit the child within the dynamometer. Potential for entrapment of the non-testing leg was evident in the passive and eccentric modes and a leg bracket restraint was constructed. Automated gravity correction did not operate when protocols were linked or data was exported to an external device. Conclusions: Limitations were noted, some of which were applicable to knee strength testing in general and others which were specific to use with children. However, most of these obstacles could be overcome, making the Biodex System 4 suitable for assessment of knee strength in children.

Symbolic number : the integration of magnitude and spatial representations in children aged 6 to 8 years

The process of learning symbolic Arabic digits in early childhood requires that magnitude and spatial information integrates with the concept of symbolic digits. Previous research has separately investigated the development of automatic access to magnitude and spatial information from symbolic digits. However, developmental trajectories of symbolic number knowledge cannot be fully understood when considering components in isolation. In view of this, we have synthesized the existing lines of research and tested the use of both magnitude and spatial information with the same sample of British children in Years 1, 2 and 3 (6-8 years of age). The physical judgment task of the numerical Stroop paradigm (NSP) demonstrated that automatic access to magnitude was present from Year 1 and the distance effect signaled that a refined processing of numerical information had developed. Additionally, a parity judgment task showed that the onset of the Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes (SNARC) effect occurs in Year 2. These findings uncover the developmental timeline of how magnitude and spatial representations integrate with symbolic number knowledge during early learning of Arabic digits and resolve inconsistencies between previous developmental and experimental research lines.

Representational change and strategy use in children's number line estimation during the first years of primary school

Background: The objective of this study was to scrutinize number line estimation behaviors displayed by children in mathematics classrooms during the first three years of schooling. We extend existing research by not only mapping potential logarithmic-linear shifts but also provide a new perspective by studying in detail the estimation strategies of individual target digits within a number range familiar to children. Methods: Typically developing children (n = 67) from Years 1 – 3 completed a number-to-position numerical estimation task (0-20 number line). Estimation behaviors were first analyzed via logarithmic and linear regression modeling. Subsequently, using an analysis of variance we compared the estimation accuracy of each digit, thus identifying target digits that were estimated with the assistance of arithmetic strategy. Results: Our results further confirm a developmental logarithmic-linear shift when utilizing regression modeling; however, uniquely we have identified that children employ variable strategies when completing numerical estimation, with levels of strategy advancing with development. Conclusion: In terms of the existing cognitive research, this strategy factor highlights the limitations of any regression modeling approach, or alternatively, it could underpin the developmental time course of the logarithmic-linear shift. Future studies need to systematically investigate this relationship and also consider the implications for educational practice.

Governing depression in Australian legal education : power, psychology and advanced liberal government

Legal educators in Australia have increasingly become concerned with the mental health of law students. The apparent risk posed by legal education to a student’s mental health has led to the deployment of a variety of measures to address these problems. By exploring these measures as productive power relations attempting to shape law students, this paper outlines how this government of depression is achieved, and the potential costs of these power relations. It examines one central Australian text offering advice about how students and law student societies can address depression, and argues that doing so not only involves students adopting particular practices of self-government to shape their legal personae, but also relies on an extension of the power relations of legal education. In addition, this paper will link this advice — which privatises the issue of depression, responsibilises individuals and communities, privileges psychological expertise, and seeks to govern ‘at a distance’ — to broader forms of social administration that presently characterise many Western societies. Doing so allows legal educators to reflect on the effects of their attempts to govern depression, and to consider new ways of altering the power relations of legal education.

Commentary on Spence et al. : "Problem solving programme implemented by teachers may prevent depression in the short term, but longer term benefits are unclear"

This is a methodologically exemplary trial of a population based (universal) approach to preventing depression in young people. The programme used teachers in a classroom setting to deliver cognitive behavioural problem solving skills to a cohort of students. We have little knowledge about “best practice” to prevent depression in adolescence. Classroom-based universal approaches appear to offer advantages in recruitment rates and lack of stigmatisation over approaches that target specific groups of at risk students. Earlier research on a universal school-based approach to preventing depression in adolescents showed promise, but employed mental health professionals to teach cognitive behavioural coping skills in small groups.1 Using such an approach routinely would be economically unsustainable. Spence’s trial, with teachers as facilitators, therefore represents a “real world” intervention that could be routinely disseminated.

Caring for women suffering depression in the postnatal period

The research and theoretical perspectives that underpin knowledge of depression in the postnatal period have tended to rely on standardized measures and 'objective' data which combine to disempower women's individual experiences. From a feminist perspective, contradictions exist between women's accounts of the early days and months following childbirth and the diagnosis of postnatal depression made by some health professionals. A framework for nursing care that uses the strengths of feminist and cognitive therapies is suggested. From this feminist-cognitive perspective, mental health nursing care will provide opportunities for women suffering depression to debrief the experience of birth and pregnancy, manage conflicts about identity, gain a sense of survival, and develop a new perspective.