Advanced Reaction Systems for Hydrogen Production

[EN] This PhD work started in March 2010 with the support of the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU) under the program named “Formación de Personal Investigador” at the Chemical and Environmental Engineering Department in the Faculty of Engineering of Bilbao. The major part of the Thesis work was carried out in the mentioned department, as a member of the Sustainable Process Engineering (SuPrEn) research group. In addition, this PhD Thesis includes the research work developed during a period of 6 months at the Institut für Mikrotechnik Mainz GmbH, IMM, in Germany. During the four years of the Thesis, conventional and microreactor systems were tested for several feedstocks renewable and non-renewable, gases and liquids through several reforming processes in order to produce hydrogen. For this purpose, new catalytic formulations which showed high activity, selectivity and stability were design. As a consequence, the PhD work performed allowed the publication of seven scientific articles in peer-reviewed journals. This PhD Thesis is divided into the following six chapters described below. The opportunity of this work is established on the basis of the transition period needed for moving from a petroleum based energy system to a renewable based new one. Consequently, the present global energy scenario was detailed in Chapter 1, and the role of hydrogen as a real alternative in the future energy system was justified based on several outlooks. Therefore, renewable and non-renewable hydrogen production routes were presented, explaining the corresponding benefits and drawbacks. Then, the raw materials used in this Thesis work were described and the most important issues regarding the processes and the characteristics of the catalytic formulations were explained. The introduction chapter finishes by introducing the concepts of decentralized production and process intensification with the use of microreactors. In addition, a small description of these innovative reaction systems and the benefits that entailed their use were also mentioned. In Chapter 2 the main objectives of this Thesis work are summarized. The development of advanced reaction systems for hydrogen rich mixtures production is the main objective. In addition, the use and comparison between two different reaction systems, (fixed bed reactor (FBR) and microreactor), the processing of renewable raw materials, the development of new, active, selective and stable catalytic formulations, and the optimization of the operating conditions were also established as additional partial objectives. Methane and natural gas (NG) steam reforming experimental results obtained when operated with microreactor and FBR systems are presented in Chapter 3. For these experiments nickel-based (Ni/Al2O3 and Ni/MgO) and noble metal-based (Pd/Al2O3 and Pt/Al2O3) catalysts were prepared by wet impregnation and their catalytic activity was measured at several temperatures, from 973 to 1073 K, different S/C ratios, from 1.0 to 2.0, and atmospheric pressure. The Weight Hourly Space Velocity (WHSV) was maintained constant in order to compare the catalytic activity in both reaction systems. The results obtained showed a better performance of the catalysts operating in microreactors. The Ni/MgO catalyst reached the highest hydrogen production yield at 1073 K and steam-to-carbon ratio (S/C) of 1.5 under Steam methane Reforming (SMR) conditions. In addition, this catalyst also showed good activity and stability under NG reforming at S/C=1.0 and 2.0. The Ni/Al2O3 catalyst also showed high activity and good stability and it was the catalyst reaching the highest methane conversion (72.9 %) and H2out/CH4in ratio (2.4) under SMR conditions at 1073 K and S/C=1.0. However, this catalyst suffered from deactivation when it was tested under NG reforming conditions. Regarding the activity measurements carried out with the noble metal-based catalysts in the microreactor systems, they suffered a very quick deactivation, probably because of the effects attributed to carbon deposition, which was detected by Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). When the FBR was used no catalytic activity was measured with the catalysts under investigation, probably because they were operated at the same WHSV than the microreactors and these WHSVs were too high for FBR system. In Chapter 4 biogas reforming processes were studied. This chapter starts with an introduction explaining the properties of the biogas and the main production routes. Then, the experimental procedure carried out is detailed giving concrete information about the experimental set-up, defining the parameters measured, specifying the characteristics of the reactors used and describing the characterization techniques utilized. Each following section describes the results obtained from activity testing with the different catalysts prepared, which is subsequently summarized: Section 4.3: Biogas reforming processes using γ-Al2O3 based catalysts The activity results obtained by several Ni-based catalysts and a bimetallic Rh-Ni catalyst supported on magnesia or alumina modified with oxides like CeO2 and ZrO2 are presented in this section. In addition, an alumina-based commercial catalyst was tested in order to compare the activity results measured. Four different biogas reforming processes were studied using a FBR: dry reforming (DR), biogas steam reforming (BSR), biogas oxidative reforming (BOR) and tri-reforming (TR). For the BSR process different steam to carbon ratios (S/C) from 1.0 to 3.0, were tested. In the case of BOR process the oxygen-to-methane (O2/CH4) ratio was varied from 0.125 to 0.50. Finally, for TR processes different S/C ratios from 1.0 to 3.0, and O2/CH4 ratios of 0.25 and 0.50 were studied. Then, the catalysts which achieved high activity and stability were impregnated in a microreactor to explore the viability of process intensification. The operation with microreactors was carried out under the best experimental conditions measured in the FBR. In addition, the physicochemical characterization of the fresh and spent catalysts was carried out by Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES), N2 physisorption, H2 chemisorption, Temperature Programmed Reduction (TPR), SEM, X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and X-ray powder Diffraction (XRD). Operating with the FBR, conversions close to the ones predicted by thermodynamic calculations were obtained by most of the catalysts tested. The Rh-Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst obtained the highest hydrogen production yield in DR. In BSR process, the Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst achieved the best activity results operating at S/C=1.0. In the case of BOR process, the Ni/Ce-Zr-Al2O3 catalyst showed the highest reactants conversion values operating at O2/CH4=0.25. Finally, in the TR process the Rh-Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst obtained the best results operating at S/C=1.0 and O2/CH4=0.25. Therefore, these three catalysts were selected to be coated onto microchannels in order to test its performance under BOR and TR processes conditions. Although the operation using microreactors was carried out under considerably higher WHSV, similar conversions and yields as the ones measured in FBR were measured. Furthermore, attending to other measurements like Turnover Frequency (TOF) and Hydrogen Productivity (PROD), the values calculated for the catalysts tested in microreactors were one order of magnitude higher. Thus, due to the low dispersion degree measured by H2-chemisorption, the Ni/Ce-Al2O3 catalyst reached the highest TOF and PROD values. Section 4.4: Biogas reforming processes using Zeolites L based catalysts In this section three type of L zeolites, with different morphology and size, were synthesized and used as catalyst support. Then, for each type of L zeolite three nickel monometallic and their homologous Rh-Ni bimetallic catalysts were prepared by the wetness impregnation method. These catalysts were tested using the FBR under DR process and different conditions of BSR (S/C ratio of 1.0 and 2.0), BOR (O2/CH4 ratio of 0.25 and 0.50) and TR processes (at S/C=1.0 and O2/CH4=0.25). The characterization of these catalysts was also carried out by using the same techniques mentioned in the previous section. Very high methane and carbon dioxide conversion values were measured for almost all the catalysts under investigation. The experimental results evidenced the better catalytic behavior of the bimetallic catalysts as compared to the monometallic ones. Comparing the catalysts behavior with regards to their morphology, for the BSR process the Disc catalysts were the most active ones at the lowest S/C ratio tested. On the contrary, the Cylindrical (30–60 nm) catalysts were more active under BOR conditions at O2/CH4=0.25 and TR processes. By the contrary, the Cylindrical (1–3 µm) catalysts showed the worst activity results for both processes. Section 4.5: Biogas reforming processes using Na+ and Cs+ doped Zeolites LTL based catalysts A method for the synthesis of Linde Type L (LTL) zeolite under microwave-assisted hydrothermal conditions and its behavior as a support for heterogeneously catalyzed hydrogen production is described in this section. Then, rhodium and nickel-based bimetallic catalysts were prepared in order to be tested by DR process and BOR process at O2/CH4=0.25. Moreover, the characterization of the catalysts under investigation was also carried out. Higher activities were achieved by the catalysts prepared from the non-doped zeolites, Rh-Ni/D and Rh-Ni/N, as compared to the ones supported on Na+ and Cs+ exchanged supports. However, the differences between them were not very significant. In addition, the Na+ and Cs+ incorporation affected mainly to the Disc catalysts. Comparing the results obtained by these catalysts with the ones studied in the section 4.4, in general worst results were achieved under DR conditions and almost the same results when operated under BOR conditions. In Chapter 5 the ethylene glycol (EG) as feed for syngas production by steam reforming (SR) and oxidative steam reforming (OSR) was studied by using microchannel reactors. The product composition was determined at a S/C of 4.0, reaction temperatures between 625°C and 725°C, atmospheric pressure and Volume Hourly Space Velocities (VHSV) between 100 and 300 NL/(gcath). This work was divided in two sections. The first one corresponds to the introduction of the main and most promising EG production routes. Then, the new experimental procedure is detailed and the information about the experimental set-up and the measured parameters is described. The characterization was carried out using the same techniques as for the previous chapter. Then, the next sections correspond to the catalytic activity and catalysts characterization results. Section 5.3: xRh-cm and xRh-np catalysts for ethylene glycol reforming Initially, catalysts with different rhodium loading, from 1.0 to 5.0 wt. %, and supported on α-Al2O3 were prepared by two different preparation methods (conventional impregnation and separate nanoparticle synthesis). Then, the catalysts were compared regarding their measured activity and selectivity, as well as the characterization results obtained before and after the activity tests carried out. The samples prepared by a conventional impregnation method showed generally higher activity compared to catalysts prepared from Rh nanoparticles. By-product formation of species such as acetaldehyde, ethane and ethylene was detected, regardless if oxygen was added to the feed or not. Among the catalysts tested, the 2.5Rh-cm catalyst was considered the best one. Section 5.4: 2.5Rh-cm catalyst support modification with CeO2 and La2O3 In this part of the Chapter 5, the catalyst showing the best performance in the previous section, the 2.5Rh-Al2O3 catalyst, was selected in order to be improved. Therefore, new Rh based catalysts were designed using α-Al2O3 and being modified this support with different contents of CeO2 or La2O3 oxides. All the catalysts containing additives showed complete conversion and selectivities close to the equilibrium in both SR and OSR processes. In addition, for these catalysts the concentrations measured for the C2H4, CH4, CH3CHO and C2H6 by-products were very low. Finally, the 2.5Rh-20Ce catalyst was selected according to its catalytic activity and characterization results in order to run a stability test, which lasted more than 115 hours under stable operation. The last chapter, Chapter 6, summarizes the main conclusions achieved throughout this Thesis work. Although very high reactant conversions and rich hydrogen mixtures were obtained using a fixed bed reaction system, the use of microreactors improves the key issues, heat and mass transfer limitations, through which the reforming reactions are intensified. Therefore, they seem to be a very interesting and promising alternative for process intensification and decentralized production for remote application.

Captação de recursos por meio de debêntures conversíveis em ações: uma opção para os investimentos no Pré-Sal

O tema a respeito do financiamento da exploração e produção de petróleo, gás natural e outros hidrocarbonetos fluidos nas áreas do Pré-Sal tem sido motivo de debate entre estudiosos e profissionais da área. No novo regime de exploração e produção previsto na Lei n 12.351/2010, a Petróleo Brasileiro S.A. (Petrobras) será a operadora de todos os blocos contratados, ou seja, responsável pela condução e execução, direta ou indireta, de todas as atividades de exploração, avaliação, desenvolvimento, produção e desativação das instalações de exploração e produção. Tal incumbência legal, por si só, denota o volume de investimentos que a Petrobras deverá realizar nos próximos anos, seja com recursos próprios ou de terceiros, para exploração dessas novas áreas descobertas. Ademais, as sociedades contratadas para empreender as operações exploratórias também necessitarão de recursos, uma vez que, junto com a Petrobras, assumirão os custos e os investimentos referentes às atividades de exploração, avaliação, desenvolvimento, fabricação e desativação das instalações de exploração e produção decorrentes dos contratos de partilha. As debêntures conversíveis em ações apresentam-se como uma alternativa viável para a captação de recursos financeiros, além de proporcionarem vantagens, se comparadas com outras formas de financiamento, como empréstimos junto a instituições financeiras e aumento de capital, uma vez que é a companhia emissora responsável por decidir, por exemplo, a data e prazo de vencimento das debêntures e a forma de remuneração dos subscritores de tais títulos. O novo regime legal das debêntures, instituído pela Lei n 12.431/2011, também veio a facilitar o uso desse instrumento para financiar as atividades de produção e exploração de petróleo, gás natural e outros hidrocarbonetos fluidos nas áreas do Pré-Sal. A Petrobras, mesmo enquanto sociedade de economia mista, poderá emitir debêntures conversíveis em ações, observadas algumas regras para a manutenção do seu controle pela União.

Compostos de enxofre em misturas de diesel e biodiesel

É difundido na literatura especializada que o uso de misturas de biodiesel e diesel de petróleo reduz as emissões dos compostos de enxofre. Esses compostos são responsáveis por inúmeras enfermidades respiratórias, além de provocar danos ao catalisador automotivo, contribuindo desta forma para a emissão de outros poluentes. Neste trabalho fez-se uma identificação dos compostos de enxofre, antes da queima no motor, presentes no diesel e em misturas de biodiesel/diesel de diferentes fontes. A metodologia empregada foi a cromatografia de fase gasosa e inicialmente empregou-se um detector de ionização por chama de hidrogênio para ajuste das condições operacionais, por ser um detector considerado universal e capaz de identificar tanto os majoritários hidrocarbonetos como os compostos de enxofre. Em seguida aplicou-se os parâmetros operacionais obtidos a um cromatógrafo à gás acoplado a um detector seletivo para enxofre, o SCD (sulphur chemiluminescence detector) para a identificação apenas dos compostos de enxofre. Após a obtenção dos dados teóricos em laboratório, foi realizada a análise de compostos mercaptídicos produzidas pelas emissões de um ônibus do Rio de Janeiro abastecido com diesel puro e misturas diesel/biodiesel nas proporções (v/v) 2% (B2), 5% (B5), 10% (B10), and 20% (B20). Os resultados indicaram uma redução dos compostos de enxofre proporcional à adição do biodiesel tanto na teoria quanto na prática

Estudo da desativação hidrotérmica de catalisadores automotivos comerciais

O vapor dágua está presente na exaustão veicular em quantidades significativas e, nas condições de operação do catalisador automotivo, essa espécie pode promover uma série de fenômenos térmicos que podem reduzir a vida útil do sistema. Dentro desse contexto, essa dissertação tem como objetivo estudar os efeitos da desativação hidrotérmica nas propriedades físico-químicas e estruturais, e no desempenho de três catalisadores automotivos comerciais à base de Pd/Rh, designados A, C e E. Esses sistemas foram submetidos a tratamento térmico a 1000C por 12 horas, sob três tipos de correntes gasosas, com a seguinte composição: N2, 14% H2O/N2 e 18% H2O/N2. A caracterização dos catalisadores consistiu das seguintes técnicas: FRX, ICP-OES, ATG-ATD, fisissorção de N2, TPD-H2 e TPR. A partir dos resultados obtidos para as amostras envelhecidas, foram constatados vários fenômenos característicos da degradação térmica, como sinterização da alumina e do óxido misto CeO2-ZrO2, transições de fases cristalina na alumina e segregação de fases no óxido misto. A avaliação da atividade catalítica foi realizada com base na reação de redução do NO pelo CO, e nas reações de oxidação do CO e do C3H8. Para os catalisadores C e E, os envelhecimentos acarretaram em perda de atividade, e os resultados da avaliação catalítica apresentaram uma boa correlação com as propriedades texturais e a redutibilidade desses catalisadores. Em contrapartida, para o catalisador A, os tratamentos térmicos o ativaram para todas as reações. Apesar de os três sistemas terem apresentado boa atividade frente à redução do NO pelo CO, foi observada, para todas as amostras, a formação indesejável de N2O em quantidades significativas, indicando que eles foram pouco seletivos na faixa de temperatura analisada

Estudo da influência da temperatura na desativação de catalisadores automotivos comerciais

Foi estudada a influência da temperatura na desativação de catalisadores automotivos comerciais, à base de Pt/Rh e de Pd/Rh, de diferentes fabricantes. Foram empregadas técnicas de caracterização textural e físico-química como FRX, AAS, fisissorção de N2, TG-ATD, DRX, RTP, quimissorção de H2 e MEV-EDX. Os catalisadores foram avaliados nas reações de oxidação do CO e oxidação do propano, utilizando uma mistura de gases estequiométrica semelhante ao gás de exaustão. Os catalisadores denominados G e V, de Pt/Rh e Pd/Rh, respectivamente, foram envelhecidos a 900C, em condições estequiométricas, e a 1200C, em ar, por períodos de tempo determinados. Em relação ao envelhecimento a 900C, apesar da caracterização apontar melhores resultados para o catalisador G, a comparação com os catalisadores novos indicou que a extensão da desativação sofrida pelo catalisador V foi menor do que aquela sofrida pelo catalisador G. O envelhecimento oxidante a 1200C foi muito prejudicial ao desempenho de ambos os catalisadores. Os difratogramas dos catalisadores envelhecidos nestas condições mostraram fenômenos importantes de transição de fase da alumina, bem como indícios de formação de novas fases a partir do óxido misto de Ce/Zr. Os perfis de RTP mostraram uma grande queda na redutibilidade, tanto para o catalisador G como para o V após este envelhecimento, e as micrografias de MEV-EDX mostraram estruturas muito sinterizadas e vários pontos de Pd aglomerado no catalisador V. Esse catalisador também apresentou partículas de texturas incomuns. Além disso, para ambos foi verificado indícios de perda de material nas amostras calcinadas por 72h a 1200C. Com relação aos resultados de avaliação catalítica, o catalisador G apresentou um desempenho inferior ao do catalisador V. A realização de envelhecimentos em atmosfera oxidante pode justificar esse comportamento uma vez que esse procedimento promove a formação de óxidos de platina, menos ativos que a platina metálica para essas reações. Além disso, este catalisador apresentou um teor de Pt bem abaixo daqueles registrados na literatura para catalisadores automotivos comerciais. Por outro lado, para catalisadores de Pd, o envelhecimento oxidante leva à formação de PdO, mais ativo que o Pd metálico. Outra observação significativa em relação à avaliação catalítica foi o fato de o catalisador G novo ter apresentado uma atividade muito baixa, especialmente para o propano, que tendeu a aumentar com o envelhecimento térmico. Foi sugerido que este catalisador precisaria de uma ativação térmica, a qual o catalisador V parece ter sido submetido durante a fabricação, pois há indícios da ocorrência de certo desgaste térmico neste catalisador novo, como mostrados pelos resultados de fisissorção de N2, DRX, TG-ATD, RTP e MEV-EDX. Foi também mostrado que os resultados de quimisorção de H2, apesar de não poderem ser usados na determinação da dispersão metálica, apresentaram uma tendência de correlação entre o consumo de H2 e o desempenho catalítico expresso como T50 ou T20. Observa-se um aumento na atividade catalítica quando a quantidade de H2 dessorvido (DTP-H2) aumenta. Concluindo, o envelhecimento térmico mostrou ser prejudicial ao desempenho do catalisador comercial, principalmente para situações drásticas como o envelhecimento realizado a 1200C em condições oxidantes

Estilos fluviais em bacias de drenagem na Vila Abraão e Vila Dois Rios: uma contribuição à gestão sustentável dos recursos hídricos da Ilha Grande RJ.

Inserida no bioma Mata Atlântica, a Ilha Grande está protegida atualmente por unidades de conservação ambiental definidas por leis, uma vez que é parte importante no cenário ambiental brasileiro. Durante séculos, a Ilha Grande sofreu alterações de diferentes níveis. A desativação do presídio abriu portas para o crescimento descontrolado do turismo, que afetou negativamente as bacias hidrográficas estudadas, deixando-as em evidência. Nesse cenário, o estudo de três bacias de drenagem da Ilha Grande, localizadas na Costa Verde do estado do Rio de Janeiro, buscou compreender a morfologia e a dinâmica dos canais fluviais, por meio de análises das características ambientais, da interferência antrópica e da aplicação do uso do primeiro estágio da metodologia de pesquisa Estilos Fluviais, apontando as partes mais sensíveis às ações antrópicas. Cinco estilos fluviais foram identificados. Os dois primeiros são denominados canais florestados e rochosos, estilos menos frágeis por estarem localizados em áreas de difícil acesso; os trechos com canais meândricos são áreas sensíveis, no entanto, permanecem em boas condições devido à pouca interferência humana, esse estilo foi identificado apenas nos trechos finais dos canais principais das duas bacias da Vila Dois Rios. Os últimos estilos estão presentes na Vila Abraão: os canais assoreados cascalhoarenosos e assoreados arenosos, que apresentam trechos mais críticos por sofrerem interferências antrópicas e por apresentarem uma área com mais sensibilidade. As informações obtidas após esse estudo servirão como base para a elaboração de projetos e pesquisas que visem reabilitar os rios avaliados, assim como seu entorno, e também promover o monitoramento da conservação de áreas ainda preservadas.

Studies on phenolase enzymes in prawns. Pt. 1. The distribution and physical properties of phenolases in Penaeid prawns

The distribution of phenolases in certain species of Penaeid prawns has been studied. Attempts were made to locate the regions of maximum enzyme activity in the prawns. The relative dopase activity has been examined in extracts from head, tail, shell with cuticles and muscle. The head juice and tail extracts were found to register very high order of enzyme activity. Metapenaeus affinis, Metapenaeus monoceros and Penaeus indicus record comparatively higher enzyme activity than Parapenaeopsis stylifera and Metapenaeus dobsoni, no definite relationship has been found between the relative activity of the enzyme and size grade at least in one species examined. Experiments were done to determine the pH optima of the enzyme and the influence of pH on its deactivation. Exposure to higher temperatures up to 55°c was shown to activate the crude enzyme considerably. The possible implications of the observations have been discussed.

Adaptation to stable and unstable dynamics achieved by combined impedance control and inverse dynamics model.

This study compared adaptation in novel force fields where trajectories were initially either stable or unstable to elucidate the processes of learning novel skills and adapting to new environments. Subjects learned to move in a null force field (NF), which was unexpectedly changed either to a velocity-dependent force field (VF), which resulted in perturbed but stable hand trajectories, or a position-dependent divergent force field (DF), which resulted in unstable trajectories. With practice, subjects learned to compensate for the perturbations produced by both force fields. Adaptation was characterized by an initial increase in the activation of all muscles followed by a gradual reduction. The time course of the increase in activation was correlated with a reduction in hand-path error for the DF but not for the VF. Adaptation to the VF could have been achieved solely by formation of an inverse dynamics model and adaptation to the DF solely by impedance control. However, indices of learning, such as hand-path error, joint torque, and electromyographic activation and deactivation suggest that the CNS combined these processes during adaptation to both force fields. Our results suggest that during the early phase of learning there is an increase in endpoint stiffness that serves to reduce hand-path error and provides additional stability, regardless of whether the dynamics are stable or unstable. We suggest that the motor control system utilizes an inverse dynamics model to learn the mean dynamics and an impedance controller to assist in the formation of the inverse dynamics model and to generate needed stability.