La normalisation des services aux Etats-Unis et en Europe : une analyse institutionnelle des formes d'autorité privée

This chapter explores the institutional environments in which standards for the service sector are expected to support the rise of a global knowledgebased economy. The analysis relies on global political economy approaches to extend to the area of services standards the assumption that the process of globalisation is not opposing states and markets, but a joint expression of both of them including new patterns and agents of structural change through formal and informal power and regulatory practices. It analyses how services standards gain authority in the institutional environment in Europe and in the United States and the extent to which this authority is recognised at the transnational level. In contrast to conventional views opposing the European and American standardisation systems, the chapter shows that institutional developments of services standards are likely to face trade-offs and compromises across those systems.

Who drinks most of the total alcohol in young men--risky single occasion drinking as normative behaviour.

AIMS: The objectives of this study were to analyse (a) the distribution of risky single-occasion drinking (RSOD) among 19-year-old men in Switzerland and (b) to show the percentage of all alcohol consumption in the form of RSOD. METHODS: The study was based on a census of Swiss francophone 19-year-old men consecutively reporting for processing. The study was conducted at Army Recruitment Center. The participants were 4116 recruits consecutively enrolling for mandatory army recruitment procedures between 23 January and 29 August in 2007. The measures were alcohol consumption measured in drinks of approximately 10 g of pure alcohol, number of drinking occasions with six or more drinks (RSOD) in the past 12 months and a retrospective 1 week drinking diary. RESULTS: 264 recruits were never seen by the research staff, 3536 of the remaining 3852 conscripts completed a questionnaire which showed that 7.2% abstained from alcohol and 75.5% of those drinking had an RSOD day at least monthly. The typical frequency of drinking was 1-3 days per week on weekends. The average quantity on weekends was about seven drinks, 69.3% of the total weekly consumption was in the form of RSOD days, and of all the alcohol consumed, 96.2% was by drinkers who had RSOD days at least once a month. CONCLUSION: Among young men, RSOD constitutes the norm. Prevention consequently must address the total population and not only high-risk drinkers.

L'argument d'autorité : de sa structure à ses effets

L'argument d'autorité, schème argumentatif fréquent et occupant une place de choix dans toutes les typologies de types d'argument, est ici revu à l'aune des définitions qu'on lui donne. Partant d'une définition classique articulant une proposition P, un locuteur expert X et la conclusion Q «P est vrai», notre analyse suggère que la conclusion de l'argument d'autorité est moins une question de vérité que d'indubitabilité postulée. Cette force rhétorique de l'argument présenté, qui agit comme si toute mise en doute était exclue, est d'autant plus prégnante que la structure même de l'argument d'autorité ne permet pas de mettre en discussion le propos autorisé. En effet, l'immense majorité des exemples d'argument d'autorité dans les manuels d'argumentation montre que l'autorité est assurée au niveau d'une prémisse au sein d'une argumentation d'un autre type, ce qui sert la tentative d'imposer P à l'allocutaire comme allant de soi. Sans considérer le schème comme un sophisme, nous observerons s'il reste un schème identifiable en tant qu'argument d'autorité quand on lui retire les constituants classiques de ce type d'argumentation. Que se passe-t-il si l'expert cité n'est pas présenté comme tel ? Si le locuteur ne prend pas en charge le contenu référentiel de P ? Si P est un fait attesté par un expert et non une opinion ? Si, enfin, le locuteur compte sur sa propre autorité ou présuppose son autorité sans recourir à un tiers expert ou témoin ? Nous interrogeons ces différentes perspectives sur la base d'exemples tirés de la presse écrite, en insistant sur les effets rhétoriques de ce schème plutôt atypique dans son fonctionnement et en montrant l'importance de la modalité épistémique dans l'assertion autoritaire dont le schème de l'argument d'autorité serait une sous-catégorie.

Liberties and constraints of the normative approach to evaluation and decision in forensic science: a discussion towards overcoming some common misconceptions

At a time when disciplined inference and decision making under uncertainty represent common aims to participants in legal proceedings, the scientific community is remarkably heterogenous in its attitudes as to how these goals ought to be achieved. Probability and decision theory exert a considerable influence, and we think by all reason rightly do so, but they go against a mainstream of thinking that does not embrace-or is not aware of-the 'normative' character of this body of theory. It is normative, in the sense understood in this article, in that it prescribes particular properties, typically (logical) coherence, to which reasoning and decision making ought to conform. Disregarding these properties can result in diverging views which are occasionally used as an argument against the theory, or as a pretext for not following it. Typical examples are objections according to which people, both in everyday life but also individuals involved at various levels in the judicial process, find the theory difficult to understand and to apply. A further objection is that the theory does not reflect how people actually behave. This article aims to point out in what sense these examples misinterpret the analytical framework in its normative perspective. Through examples borrowed mostly from forensic science contexts, it is argued that so-called intuitive scientific attitudes are particularly liable to such misconceptions. These attitudes are contrasted with a statement of the actual liberties and constraints of probability and decision theory and the view according to which this theory is normative.

Normative Topographic ERP Analyses of Speed of Speech Processing and Grammar Before and After Grammatical Treatment.

Typically developing (TD) preschoolers and age-matched preschoolers with specific language impairment (SLI) received event-related potentials (ERPs) to four monosyllabic speech sounds prior to treatment and, in the SLI group, after 6 months of grammatical treatment. Before treatment, the TD group processed speech sounds faster than the SLI group. The SLI group increased the speed of their speech processing after treatment. Posttreatment speed of speech processing predicted later impairment in comprehending phrase elaboration in the SLI group. During the treatment phase, change in speed of speech processing predicted growth rate of grammar in the SLI group.

Grammaire française méthodique et raisonnée : rédigée d'après un nouveau plan et fondée sur un grand nombre de faits et sur l'autorité des grammairiens les plus connus ([Reprod.]) / par A. Boniface,...

Collection : Archives de la linguistique française ; 46