A preliminary theory of dark network resilience

A crucial contemporary policy question for governments across the globe is how to cope with international crime and terrorist networks. Many such “dark” networks—that is, networks that operate covertly and illegally—display a remarkable level of resilience when faced with shocks and attacks. Based on an in-depth study of three cases (MK, the armed wing of the African National Congress in South Africa during apartheid; FARC, the Marxist guerrilla movement in Colombia; and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, LTTE, in Sri Lanka), we present a set of propositions to outline how shocks impact dark network characteristics (resources and legitimacy) and networked capabilities (replacing actors, linkages, balancing integration and differentiation) and how these in turn affect a dark network's resilience over time. We discuss the implications of our findings for policymakers.

Violent urbanism is us

This paper explores violent urbanism in the recent science-fiction filem District 9 whhich depicts an alien immigration camp, filmed on location in Soweto in 2008 in the midst of a series of violent clashed between indigenous South Africans and the new wave of African immigrants. Violent Urbanism is the State of method of control of bodies and populations by those precise biological techniques that determine geopolitical sites for the control of cities. This film while presented as cinema verite speaks the real invasion of traditional, spatio-disciplinary regimes such as corporate-run detention centres, refugee camps, border control and enforced relocation by those imperceptible techniques which violate the body by reducing it to a biological datum, tool, or specimen to serve the security agenda of the twenty-first century nation-state. These techniques are chemical and biological warfare proliferation; genetic engineering; and surveillance systems, such as biometrics, whose purview is no longer limited to the specular but includes the molecular. District 9 evinces a compelling urban image of contemporary biopolitics that disturbs the received historiography of post-apartheid urbanism. Clearly Johannesburg is not the only place this could or is happening - the reach of biopolitics is worldwide. District 9 visualises with utter precision the corporate hijacking of the biological realm in contemporary cites, just as it asks the unsettling question, who exactly is the "audience" of Violent Urbanism?

Introduction to special issue on what criminology can say about the war on terror

On 20 September 2001, the former US President, George W. Bush, declared what is now widely, and arguably infamously, known as a ‘war on terror’. In response to the fatal 9/11 attacks in New York and Washington, DC, President Bush identified the US military response as having far-reaching and long-lasting consequences. It was, he argued, ‘our war on terror’ that began ‘with al Qaeda, but … it will not end until every terrorist group of global reach has been found, stopped and defeated’ (CNN 2001). This was to be a war that would, in the words of former British Prime Minister, Tony Blair, seek to eliminate a threat that was ‘aimed at the whole democratic world’ (Blair 2001). Blair claimed that this threat is of such magnitude that unprecedented measures would need to be taken to uphold freedom and security. Blair would later admit that it was a war that ‘divided the country’ and was based on evidence ‘about Saddam having actual biological and chemical weapons, as opposed to the capability to develop them, has turned out to be wrong’ (Blair 2004). The failures of intelligence ushered in new political rhetoric in the form of ‘trust me’ because ‘instinct is no science’ (Blair 2004). The war on terror has been one of the most significant international events in the past three decades, alongside the collapse of the former Soviet Union, the end of apartheid in South Africa, the unification of Europe and the marketization of the People's Republic of China. Yet, unlike the other events, it will not be remembered for advancing democracy or sovereignty, but for the conviction politics of particular politicians who chose to dispense with international law and custom in pursuit of personal instincts that proved fatal. Since the invasions of Afghanistan in October 2001 and …

The high burden of injuries in South Africa

Objective To estimate the magnitude and characteristics of the injury burden in South Africa within a global context. Methods The Actuarial Society of South Africa demographic and AIDS model (ASSA 2002) – calibrated to survey, census and adjusted vital registration data – was used to calculate the total number of deaths in 2000. Causes of death were determined from the National Injury Mortality Surveillance System profile. Injury death rates and years of life lost (YLL) were estimated using the Global Burden of Disease methodology. National years lived with disability (YLDs) were calculated by applying a ratio between YLLs and YLDs found in a local injury data source, the Cape Metropole Study. Mortality and disability-adjusted life years’ (DALYs) rates were compared with African and global estimates. Findings Interpersonal violence dominated the South African injury profile with age-standardized mortality rates at seven times the global rate. Injuries were the second-leading cause of loss of healthy life, accounting for 14.3% of all DALYs in South Africa in 2000. Road traffic injuries (RTIs) are the leading cause of injury in most regions of the world but South Africa has exceedingly high numbers – double the global rate. Conclusion Injuries are an important public health issue in South Africa. Social and economic determinants of violence, many a legacy of apartheid policies, must be addressed to reduce inequalities in society and build community cohesion. Multisectoral interventions to reduce traffic injuries are also needed. We highlight this heavy burden to stress the need for effective prevention programmes.

The ethics of corporate governance: A (South)African perspective

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to review the developments in South African corporate governance since the end of apartheid, with a view to identifying themes and points of convergence and/or divergence with other models. Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents a critical review of South African corporate governance in the context of political and economic developments. Where relevant, aspects of corporate governance theory (in particular the stakeholder and shareholder debate) are considered in the South African context. Findings – South African corporate governance can be seen to broadly follow Anglo‐American examples with the notable exception of the stakeholder approach of the two King reports. This approach emphasises the responsibilities of companies to various stakeholders and encourages stakeholder engagement as an integral element of company strategy. There has not, however, been any substantial incorporation of stakeholder interests into formal corporate governance structures such as board structure and financial reporting. Practical implications – The ongoing consideration of corporate governance developments in South Africa is important for its continued development in the country and the region. Originality/value – A review of South African corporate governance is timely given the probable release of the third King report in 2009, together with new company legislation.

Theorising South Africa's corporate governance

South Africa’s principal corporate governance report aspires to an ‘inclusive’ approach to corporate governance, in which companies are clearly advised to consider the interests of a variety of stakeholders. Yet, in common with many other countries, there is little discussion of the theoretical foundations and assumptions implicit in the recommended approach to corporate governance. The purpose of this article is to provide an analysis of corporate governance and the corporate environment in South Africa in terms of existing theory and models of corporate governance, and to provide a critique based on a consideration of traditional African values and the socio-economic necessities of post-apartheid South Africa. The result is the identification of an incompatibility between the current corporate environment in South Africa and the given exposition of African values. Some prospects for change are then identified.

Climate justice for intellectual property at Durban

DURBAN CLIMATE CHANGE CONFERENCE: In a global day of action for climate justice, thousands of protestors complained about the slow progress in international debates on climate change at the United Nations conference in Durban. One of the chants of the campaigners was “Climate justice … not climate apartheid”. Banners dubbed the Durban event a “circus” – a “conference of polluters”.

The church must become the people of Soweto : Manas Buthelezi’s existential-Christocentric understanding of the church

The aim of this study has been to discern what Manas Buthelezi (1935-), a black South African Lutheran theologian and later also a bishop, regards as the requirements a church has to fulfill in order to be credible in the apartheid society. Buthelezi’s dissertation and several articles written between the years 1968 and 1993 are the sources of this study. Also the lectures held in Heidelberg in 1972 are referred to. Systematic analysis is the method used. The question of the credibility of the church is studied through three concepts that play an important role in Buthelezi’s ecclesiological thought, namely the wholeness of life, incarnation and liberation. The notion of the wholeness of life stems from the African tradition. Buthelezi takes the concept into the Christian church: the church should realize that God is the Creator of all life and Christ the lord of every aspect of human existence. Life is one entity coram Deo. However, the church is not to become the world; solidarity between the two must remain critical as the church is also called to play a prophetic role in the society. The church is in an open relationship with the world. It has a unique message of forgiveness and reconciliation. Nevertheless, the message is not a possession of the church but it is addressed to the whole world. The meaning of incarnation comes close to that of the wholeness of life. Following the example of Christ’s incarnation, the church must become human in the reality of the people. The church in Soweto is to become the people of Soweto, that is, the church must become as vulnerable as the people are. An incarnate church cannot be immune to the oppression that people experience, because the people are the church. The church is therefore bound to suffer. Buthelezi’s theology of the cross is pragmatic: the suffering of the church aims at the liberation of the oppressed. At times the physical presence of the church by the side of the suffering people is the only way to preach the incarnate gospel. In the South Africa of the late 1960s onwards the liberation of the oppressed black people was high on the agenda of Black Theology. As a leader of the early South African Black Theology, Buthelezi is concerned about the racial injustice in his country. He urges the churches to join the struggle against it as one people of God. The notions of liberation and the wholeness of life emerge in Buthelezi’s holistic understanding of liberation that involves the inner liberation of the black spirit and the liberation of the economic, social and political aspects of life. Interpreting Tillich’s correlation method in the South African situation, and also paralleling other liberation theologians, Buthelezi takes the existential situation of the people as the starting point for liberation. The gospel has to respond to the existential questions of people. The church is called to work for the liberation of society but it must also be liberated itself. Buthelezi initiated the LWF statement on the status confessionis in South Africa (1977). In line with the statement, he calls for church unity on the human level. For the unity to be true, it has to be experienced on the grassroots’ level. All the three concepts covered urge the church to come down from any ivory tower and out of any spiritual haven it might hide in. A lot of the credibility of the church derives from the behavior of the people. Buthelezi’s concentration on how the people who constitute the church should live their faith leaves less attention to how God constitutes the church. I have labeled Buthelezi’s understanding of the church existential-Christocentric due to the emphasis he lays on the need of the church to take the existential situation of the people seriously and on the other hand, on Christ as the exemplar for the church.

Ihmisoikeusperusteista ulkopolitiikkaa : kansalaisjärjestöjen vaikutus Suomen suhtautumiseen Etelä-Afrikan järjestelmälliseen rotuerotteluun vuosina 1985-1987.

Apartheid eli rotuerottelupolitiikka sai virallisen statuksen Etelä-Afrikassa vuonna 1948. Merkittävimpänä Etelä-Afrikan sisäisenä apartheidpolitiikkaa vastustavana järjestönä profiloitui African National Congress. ANC:n ja kommunistien yhteydet pitivät johtavat länsivallat ja Etelä-Afrikan tärkeimmät kauppakumppanit Yhdysvallat ja Iso-Britannian puuttumatta maan sisäisiin asioihin. 1960-luvulla ANC:n toiminta meni maan alle ja kansainvälinen antiapartheidliikehdintä sai paljon nostetta.Suomessa Etelä-Afrikan apartheidpolitiikan vastustus tuli osaksi 60-luvun vasemmistopainotteisten opiskelijaliikkeiden retoriikkaa, mutta 1980-luvulle tultaessa antiapartheid-liikkeen suomalainen haara koostui sekä vasemmistolaisista että oikeistolaisista jäsenistä. Myös kirkon merkittävä rooli tässä ulkopoliittisessa kysymyksessä on merkittävä. Tutkin kansalaisjärjestöjen vaikutusmahdollisuuksia ulkopolitiikkaan ja yleensäkin Suomen ulkopolitiikassa tapahtunutta murrosta realismista ihmisoikeudelliseen lähestymistapaan. Olen tullut johtopäätökseen, että tarkastelemani ajanjakson maailmanpoliittinen tilanne ei vaikuttanut totutun lailla Suomen ulkopoliittiseen päätöksentekoon: käsitteenä suomettumattomuus kuvaa tilannetta hyvin. Apartheidkysymys ei ollut taloudellisesti merkittävä, sillä kauppa Suomen ja Etelä-Afrikan välillä oli todella pientä. Aikanaan sitä kuitenkin käytettiin perusteluna suhteiden jatkamiselle ja tutkijalle tulikin käsitys, että pelaajina tässä olivat lähinnä antiapartheid-liike, kirkko sekä ay-liike yhtenä rintamana elinkeinoelämää vastaan. Elinkeinoelämän edustajana tässä nähtiin reaalipolitiikkaan tukeutunut ulkoministeriö. Suomen ihmisoikeuspolitiikka oli näkymätöntä verrattuna muihin Pohjoismaihin ja se kulki lähes aina YK:n kautta universaalisuusperiaatteeseen ja puolueettomuuspolitiikkaan vedoten. Monenkeskisessä maailmassa poliittinen mahdollisuusrakenne muuttui ja kolmannen sektorin toimijat saivat ulkopoliittista painoarvoa. Suomi kielsi Etelä-Afrikan kaupan vuonna 1987 kansalaisyhteiskunnasta kaikuneiden vaatimusten takia. Suurimpina toimijoina olivat Auto- ja Kuljetusalan Työntekijäliitto AKT, Eristetään Etelä-Afrikka kampanja EELAK ja Suomen luterilainen kirkko. AKT:n tavarankuljetusboikotti 1985 oli merkittävin konkreettinen toimenpide, jolla hallitusta painostettiin lopettamaan Etelä-Afrikan kauppa. Kyseessä oli ensimmäinen kerta, kun kansalaisjärjestöillä oli merkittävää vaikutusta Suomen ulkopolitiikkaan ja ainoa kerta, kun Suomi on asettanut jonkun maan talousboikottiin ilman YK:n turvallisuusneuvoston yksimielistä päätöstä. Tutkimus koostuu kansalaisjärjestöaktiivien haastatteluista ja aikaisemman tutkimuskirjallisuuden sekä viranomaislähteiden analyysistä. Ihmisoikeuksien ja yleisen mielipiteen vaikutus ulkopolitiikan hoitoon kylmän sodan liennytysvaiheessa tulee ilmi myös kansainvälisten suhteiden turbulenssi-teoriaa soveltamalla. Suomalainen kehitys antiapartheidliikehdinnässä kulki Pohjoismaiden perässä.

The Tourism-Development Nexus in Namibia : A Study on National Tourism Policy and Local Tourism Enterprises' Policy Knowledge

The tourism development nexus in southern Africa involves highly topical issues related to tourism planning, power relations, community participation, and natural resources. Namibia offers a particularly interesting context for the study of these issues due to its colonial legacy, vast tourism potential, recently adopted tourism policy and community-based approaches to tourism and natural resource management. This study is an interdisciplinary endeavour to analyse the role of tourism in Namibia s post-apartheid transformation process by focusing on Namibian tourism policy and local tourism enterprises' policy knowledge. Major attention is paid to how the tourism policy's national development objectives are understood and conceptualised by the representatives of different tourism enterprises and the ways in which they relate to the practical needs of the enterprises. Through such local policy knowledge the study explores various opportunities, challenges and constraints related to the promotion of tourism as a development strategy. The study utilises a political economy approach to tourism and development through three current and interrelated discourses which are relevant in the Namibian context. These are tourism, power and inequality, tourism and sustainable development, and tourism and poverty reduction. The qualitative research material was gathered in Namibia in 2006-2007 and 2008. This material consists of 34 semi-structured interviews in 16 tourism enterprises, including private trophy hunting farms and private lodges, small tour operators and community-based tourism enterprises. In addition, the research material consists of observations in the enterprises, and 37 informal and 23 expert interviews. The findings indicate that in the light of local tourism enterprises the tourism policy objectives appear more complex and ambiguous. Furthermore, they involve multiple meanings and interpretations which reflect the socio-economic stratification of the informants and Namibian society, together with the professional stratification of the tourism enterprises and restrictions on the capacity of tourism to address the development objectives. In the light of such findings it is obvious that aspects of power and inequality affect the tourism development nexus in Namibia. The study concludes that, as in the case of other southern African countries, in order to promote sustainable development and reduce poverty, Namibia should not only target tourism growth but pay attention to who benefits from that growth and how. From a political economy point of view, it is important that prevailing structural challenges are addressed equally in the planning of tourism, development and natural resource management. Such approach would help the Namibian majority to enjoy the benefits of increasing tourism in the country.

Diário da Constituinte [gravação de vídeo] : [programa n. 518]

Constituintes negros formam uma delegação para visita à Africa do Sul observar as condições de segregação da população negra daquele país, o Aparthaid. A visita seria realizada no intervalo entre o primeiro e o segundo turno de votação. A Constituinte retoma a votação do título VI da futura Carta, que trata do Sistema Tributário no país. Foi votada a contribuição de melhoria. Cada Município vai poder cobrar dos interessados uma contribuição para obras de melhorias, como asfalto de rua, pontes e estradas. O tema polêmico da Sessão foi o parágrafo primeiro do artigo 184, que permite a estados e municípios, a cobrança de 5% sobre o imposto de renda que incidir em ganhos de capital, para fazer face a obras estaduais e municipais. Presidente da Constituinte fez um balanço dos dispositivos votados e faz apelo para que todos estejam presentes nas sessões subsequentes.

Viveiros de homens do mar: Escolas de Aprendizes-Marinheiros e as experiências formativas na Marinha Militar do Rio de Janeiro (1870-1910

O presente estudo aborda historicamente a formação elementar, profissional e militar dos aprendizes-marinheiros e aprendizes-artífices entre 1870 e 1910 na Marinha Militar do Brasil. Para compreender as experiências compartilhadas que os meninos e os jovens desenvolveram com os marinheiros nacionais e estrangeiros, com o oficialato e com os trabalhadores da cidade utilizamos o referencial teórico do historiador E.P. Thompson. A pesquisa sobre as Escolas de Aprendizes-Marinheiros e sua caracterização como uma instituição total e a análise de seus dispositivos disciplinares foi realizada com o aparato conceitual de Michel Foucault. As fontes históricas analisadas foram os Relatórios Ministeriais do Ministério da Marinha do período, os livros de ofícios do Arsenal de Marinha da Corte, o acervo da Revista Marítima Brasileira e documentos do Fundo/Coleção denominado Grupo de Identificação de Fundos Internos GIFI sob a guarda do Arquivo Nacional. Um dos objetivos foi compreender os fenômenos que envolveram essa instituição militar dentro das políticas de Estado no período localizado entre o fim da Guerra do Paraguai e a Revolta dos Marinheiros de 1910, e quais as mudanças qualitativas, contradições e conflitos na organização interna do trabalho concorreram para a produção de um modelo formativo dos futuros homens do mar. Buscamos compreender os mecanismos internos de recrutamento e controle dos sujeitos sociais dessa instituição permanente do Estado. A abordagem sobre o que seriam as experiências formativas dos aprendizes partiu da ideia de que a educação dos indivíduos acontecia em múltiplas dimensões da vida e não somente através de aulas ou programas de estudos oficiais, de compêndios ou de regras disciplinares repercutidas reiteradas vezes. Questões como o uso do tempo, o campo dos direitos como arena de conflitos, o dualismo no sistema educativo, a alimentação, o descanso, o alcoolismo, as deserções, as acomodações e as revoltas, compuseram a análise da formação dos meninos e jovens da Marinha. Verificamos como os embates em torno da temática da profissionalização e carreira, que passavam pelas discussões que envolviam aspectos como o mérito pessoal, a antiguidade e o bom comportamento interferiram na produção de uma consciência de direitos. Tudo isso fez parte das experiências formativas de meninos e rapazes daquela instituição chamada pelos oficiais de principal viveiro de homens do mar. Por fim, para entendermos aqueles chamados pelo referencial thompsoniano como os de baixo percorremos a dureza da hierarquia e disciplina militares e as concepções de mundo desenvolvidas a partir das classificações e apartações dos indivíduos pela raça, pela origem social, pela constituição física e pelo analfabetismo.

O Verbo da Nação : movimentos de libertação na África do Sul do século XX

Este trabalho se dedica ao estudo dos movimentos de libertação que atuaram na África do Sul ao longo do século XX em oposição ao regime de segregação racial do apartheid. O objetivo central é refletir sobre os processos de construção simbólica pelos quais passaram esses movimentos, no intuito de compreendê-los como produtores de suas próprias identidades coletivas. Destarte, propõe-se que essa constituição identitária girou em torno de três eixos principais. Primeiro, o multirracialismo, tendo origem na parceria entre diferentes organizações políticas, provenientes de distintos grupos raciais, que buscaram construir uma solidariedade em comum a partir de sua experiência de luta em conjunto na década de 1950. Em segundo lugar há a volorização da negritude enquanto identidade racial, elemento enfatizado pelos movimentos africanistas a partir da década de 1940. Por sua vez, a classe esteve presente desde a formação dos primeiros sindicatos negros na década de 1920, mas assumiu um tom mais político trinta anos depois, no momento de ascensão da luta por libertação. Afirma-se também que a dimensão interativa desses grupos enquanto subjetividades coletivas foi crucial para a delineação de suas identidades nessas bases, através de um complexo e relacional processo de intercâmbio simbólico entre si e o Estado.

C.A.W. Manning and the Study of International Relations

Suganami, H., C.A.W.Manning and the Study of International Relations, Review of International Studies (2001), 27 : 091-107 RAE2008

African Pasts: Memory and History in African Literatures

Woods, T. (2007). African Pasts: Memory and History in African Literatures. Manchetser: Manchester University Press. RAE2008