The key enzyme in galactose metabolism, UDP-galactose-4-epimerase, affects cell-wall integrity and morphology in Candida albicans even in the absence of galactose

The enzyme UDP-galactose-4-epimerase (GAL10) catalyzes a key step in galactose metabolism converting UDP-galactose to UDPglucose which then can get metabolized through glycolysis and TCA cycle thus allowing the cell to use galactose as a carbon and energy source. As in many fungi, a functional homolog of GAL10 exists in Candida albicans. The domainal organization of the homologs from Saccharomyces cerevisiae and C albicans show high degree of homology having both mutarotase and an epimerase domain. The former is responsible for the conversion of beta-D-galactose to alpha-D-galactose and the hitter for epimerization of UDP-galactose to UDP-glucose. Absence of C albicans GAL10 (CaGAL10) affects cell-wall organization, oxidative stress response, biofilm formation and filamentation. Cagal10 mutant cells tend to flocculate extensively as compared to the wild-type cells. The excessive filamentation in this mutant is reflected in its irregular and wrinkled colony morphology. Cagal10 strain is more susceptible to oxidative stress when tested in presence of H2O2. While the S. cerevsiae GAL10 (ScGAL10), essential for survival in the presence of galactose, has not been reported to have defects in the absence of galactose, the C albicans homolog shows these phenotypes during growth in the absence of galactose. Thus a functional CaGal10 is required not only for galactose metabolism but also for normal hyphal morphogenesis, colony morphology, maintenance of cell-wall integrity and for resistance to oxidative stress even in the absence of galactose. (c) 2006 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Structural plasticity and enzyme action: Crystal structures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase

Peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase cleaves the ester bond between tRNA and the attached peptide in peptidyl-tRNA in order to avoid the toxicity resulting from its accumulation and to free the tRNA available for further rounds in protein synthesis. The structure of the enzyme from Mycobacteritan tuberculosis has been determined in three crystal forms. This structure and the structure of the enzyme frorn Escherichia coli in its crystal differ substantially on account of the binding of the C terminus of the E. coli enzyme to the peptide-binding site of a neighboring molecule in the crystal. A detailed examination of this difference led to an elucidation of the plasticity of the binding site of the enzyme. The peptide-binding site of the enzyme is a cleft between the body, of the molecule and a polypepticle Y stretch involving a loop and a helix. This stretch is in the open conformation when the enzyme is in the free state as in the crystals of M. tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase. Furthermore, there is no physical continuity between the tRNA and the peptide-binding sites. The molecule in the E. coli crystal mimics the peptide-bound enzyme molecule. The peptide stretch referred to earlier now closes on the bound peptide. Concurrently, a channel connecting the tRNA and the peptide-binding site opens primarily through the concerted movement of two residues. Thus, the crystal structure of M. tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase when compared with the crystal structure of the E. coli enzyme, leads to a model of structural changes associated with enzyme action on the basis of the plasticity of the molecule. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

NSs Encoded by Groundnut Bud Necrosis Virus Is a ifunctional Enzyme

Groundnut bud necrosis virus (GBNV), a member of genus Tospovirus in the family Bunyaviridae, infects a large number of leguminosae and solanaceae plants in India. With a view to elucidate the function of nonstructural protein, NSs encoded by the small RNA genome (S RNA), the NSs protein of GBNV-tomato (Karnataka) [1] was over-expressed in E.coli and purified by Ni-NTA chromatography. The purified rNSs protein exhibited an RNA stimulated NTPase activity. Further, this activity was metal ion dependent and was inhibited by adenosine 5' (beta, gamma imido) triphosphate, an ATP analog. The rNSs could also hydrolyze dATP.Interestingly, in addition to the NTPase and dATPase activities, the rNSs exhibited ATP independent 5' RNA/DNA phosphatase activity that was completely inhibited by AMP. The 5' alpha phosphate could be removed from ssDNA, ssRNA, dsDNA and dsRNA thus confirming that rNSs has a novel 5' alpha phosphatase activity. K189A mutation in the Walker motif A (GxxxxGKT) resulted in complete loss of ATPase activity, but the 5'phosphatase activity was unaffected. On the other hand, D159A mutation in the Walker motif B (DExx) resulted in partial loss of both the activities. These results demonstrate for the first time that NSs is a bifunctional enzyme, which could participate in viral movement, replication or in suppression of the host defense mechanism.

A Model of Anomalous Enzyme-Catalyzed Gel Degradation Kinetics

We show that a model of target location involving n noninteracting particles moving subdiffusively along a line segment (a generalization of a model introduced by Sokolov et al. [Biophys. J. 2005, 89, 895.]) provides a basis for understanding recent experiments by Pelta et al. [Phys. Rev. Lett. 2007, 98, 228302.] on the kinetics of diffusion-limited gel degradation. These experiments find that the time t(c) taken by the enzyme thermolysin to completely hydrolyze a gel varies inversely as roughly the 3/2 power of the initial enzyme concentration [E]. In general, however, this time would be expected to vary either as [E](-1) or as [E](-2), depending on whether the Brownian diffusion of the enzyme to the site of cleavage took place along the network chains (1-d diffusion) or through the pore spaces (3-d diffusion). In our model, the unusual dependence of t(c) on [E] is explained in terms of a reaction-diffusion equation that is formulated in terms of fractional rather than ordinary time derivatives.

Prediction of estrus cyclicity in Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) through estimation of fecal progesterone metabolite: development of an enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay

Asian elephants (Dephas maximus), prominent ``flagship species'', arelisted under the category of endangered species (EN - A2c, ver. 3.1, IUCN Red List 2009) and there is a need for their conservation This requires understanding demographic and reproductive dynamics of the species. Monitoring reproductive status of any species is traditionally being carried out through invasive blood sampling and this is restrictive for large animals such as wild or semi-captive elephants due to legal. ethical, and practical reasons Hence. there is a need for a non-invasive technique to assess reproductive cyclicity profiles of elephants. which will help in the species' conservation strategies In this study. we developed an indirect competitive enzyme linked immuno-sorbent assay (ELISA) to estimate the concentration of one of the progesterone-metabolites i.e, allopregnanolone (5 alpha-P-3OH) in fecal samples of As elephants We validated the assay which had a sensitivity of 0.25 mu M at 90% binding with an EC50 value of 1 37 mu M Using female elephants. kept under semi-captive conditions in the forest camps of Mudumalar Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu and Bandipur National Park, Karnataka, India. we measured fecal progesterone-metabolite (5 alpha-P-3OH) concentrations in six an and showed their clear correlation with those of scrum progesterone measured by a standard radio-immuno assay. Statistical analyses using a Linear Mixed Effect model showed a positive correlation (P < 0 1) between the profiles of fecal 5 alpha-P-3OH (range 0 5-10 mu g/g) and serum progesterone (range: 0 1-1 8 ng/mL) Therefore, our studies show, for the first time, that the fecal progesterone-metabolite assay could be exploited to predict estrus cyclicity and to potentially assess the reproductive status of captive and free-ranging female Asian elephants, thereby helping to plan their breeding strategy (C) 2010 Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.

Structural plasticity and enzyme action: Crystal structures of Mycobacterium tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase

Peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase cleaves the ester bond between tRNA and the attached peptide in peptidyl-tRNA in order to avoid the toxicity resulting from its accumulation and to free the tRNA available for further rounds in protein synthesis. The structure of the enzyme from Mycobacteritan tuberculosis has been determined in three crystal forms. This structure and the structure of the enzyme frorn Escherichia coli in its crystal differ substantially on account of the binding of the C terminus of the E. coli enzyme to the peptide-binding site of a neighboring molecule in the crystal. A detailed examination of this difference led to an elucidation of the plasticity of the binding site of the enzyme. The peptide-binding site of the enzyme is a cleft between the body, of the molecule and a polypepticle Y stretch involving a loop and a helix. This stretch is in the open conformation when the enzyme is in the free state as in the crystals of M. tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase. Furthermore, there is no physical continuity between the tRNA and the peptide-binding sites. The molecule in the E. coli crystal mimics the peptide-bound enzyme molecule. The peptide stretch referred to earlier now closes on the bound peptide. Concurrently, a channel connecting the tRNA and the peptide-binding site opens primarily through the concerted movement of two residues. Thus, the crystal structure of M. tuberculosis peptidyl-tRNA hydrolase when compared with the crystal structure of the E. coli enzyme, leads to a model of structural changes associated with enzyme action on the basis of the plasticity of the molecule. (c) 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Structure determination and biochemical studies on Bacillus stearothermophilus E53Q serine hydroxymethyltransferase and its complexes provide insights on function and enzyme memory

Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT) belongs to the alpha-family of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate-dependent enzymes and catalyzes the reversible conversion of L-Ser and etrahydrofolate to Gly and 5,10-methylene tetrahydrofolate. 5,10-Methylene tetrahydrofolate serves as a source of one-carbon fragment in many biological processes. SHMT also catalyzes the tetrahydrofolate-independent conversion of L-allo-Thr to Gly and acetaldehyde. The crystal structure of Bacillus stearothermophilus SHMT (bsSHMT) suggested that E53 interacts with the substrate, L-Ser and etrahydrofolate. To elucidate the role of E53, it was mutated to Q and structural and biochemical studies were carried out with the mutant enzyme. The internal aldimine structure of E53QbsSHMT was similar to that of the except for significant changes at Q53, Y60 and Y61. The wild-type enzyme, carboxyl of Gly and side chain of L-Ser were in two conformations in the respective external aldimine structures. The mutant enzyme was completely inactive for tetrahydrofolate-depen dent cleavage of L-Ser, whereas there was a 1.5-fold increase in the rate of tetrahydrofolate-independent reaction with L-allo-Thr. The results obtained from these studies suggest that E53 plays an essential role in tetrahydrofolate/5-formyl tetrahydrofolate binding and in the proper positioning of C beta of L-Ser for direct attack by N5 of tetrahydrofolate. Most interestingly, the structure of the complex obtained by cocrystallization of E53QbsSHMT with Gly and 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate revealed the gem-diamine form of pyridoxal 5'-phosphate bound to Gly and active site Lys. However, density for 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate was not observed. Gly carboxylate was in a single conformation, whereas pyridoxal 5'-phosphate had two distinct conformations. The differences between the structures of this complex and Gly external aldimine suggest that the changes induced by initial binding of 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate are retained even though 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate is absent in the final structure. Spectral studies carried out with this mutant enzyme also suggest that 5-formyl tetrahydrofolate binds to the E53QbsSHMT-Gly complex forming a quinonoid intermediate and falls off within 4 h of dialysis, leaving behind the mutant enzyme in the gemdiamine form. This is the first report to provide direct evidence for enzyme memory based on the crystal structure of enzyme complexes.

Nucleotidases in plants *1, , *2: III. Effect of metabolites on the enzyme hydrolyzing flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) from Phaseolus radiatus

The highly purified enzyme from mung bean seedlings hydrolyzing FAD at pH 9.4 and temperature 49 °, functioned with an initial fast rate followed by a second slower rate. The activity was linear with enzyme concentration over a small range of concentration and was dependent on the time of incubation. Inhibition of enzyme activity with increasing concentrations of AMP was sigmoid;concentrations less than 1 × 10−6 M were without effect, concentrations between 1 × 10−6 and 8 × 10−5 M inhibited by 20% and concentrations beyond 8 × 10−5 Image caused progressive inhibition. Concentrations beyond 1 × 10−3 Image inhibited the activity completely. Preincubation of the enzyme with PCMB or NEM, or aging, or reversible denaturation with urea abolished the inhibitory effect of AMP at concentrations lower than 8 × 10−6 Image . The aged enzyme could be reactivated by ADP.

Heme oxygenase-1 in cardiovascular diseases

Myocardial infarction (MI) and heart failure are major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Treatment of MI involves early restoration of blood flow to limit infarct size and preserve cardiac function. MI leads to left ventricular remodeling, which may eventually progress to heart failure, despite the established pharmacological treatment of the disease. To improve outcome of MI, new strategies for protecting the myocardium against ischemic injury and enhancing the recovery and repair of the infarcted heart are needed. Heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) is a stress-responsive and cytoprotective enzyme catalyzing the degradation of heme into the biologically active reaction products biliverdin/bilirubin, carbon monoxide (CO) and free iron. HO-1 plays a key role in maintaining cellular homeostasis by its antiapoptotic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative and proangiogenic properties. The present study aimed, first, at evaluating the role of HO-1 as a cardioprotective and prohealing enzyme in experimental rat models and at investigating the potential mechanisms mediating the beneficial effects of HO-1 in the heart. The second aim was to evaluate the role of HO-1 in 231 critically ill intensive care unit (ICU) patients by investigating the association of HO-1 polymorphisms and HO-1 plasma concentrations with illness severity, organ dysfunction and mortality throughout the study population and in the subgroup of cardiac patients. We observed in an experimental rat MI model, that HO-1 expression was induced in the infarcted rat hearts, especially in the infarct and infarct border areas. In addition, pre-emptive HO-1 induction and CO donor pretreatment promoted recovery and repair of the infarcted hearts by differential mechanisms. CO promoted vasculogenesis and formation of new cardiomyocytes by activating c-kit+ stem/progenitor cells via hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha, stromal cell-derived factor 1 alpha (SDF-1a) and vascular endothelial growth factor B, whereas HO-1 promoted angiogenesis possibly via SDF-1a. Furthermore, HO-1 protected the heart in the early phase of infarct healing by increasing survival and proliferation of cardiomyocytes. The antiapoptotic effect of HO-1 persisted in the late phases of infarct healing. HO-1 also modulated the production of extracellular matrix components and reduced perivascular fibrosis. Some of these beneficial effects of HO-1 were mediated by CO, e.g. the antiapoptotic effect. However, CO may also have adverse effects on the heart, since it increased the expression of extracellular matrix components. In isolated perfused rat hearts, HO-1 induction improved the recovery of postischemic cardiac function and abrogated reperfusion-induced ventricular fibrillation, possibly in part via connexin 43. We found that HO-1 plasma levels were increased in all critically ill patients, including cardiac patients, and were associated with the degree of organ dysfunction and disease severity. HO-1 plasma concentrations were also higher in ICU and hospital nonsurvivors than in survivors, and the maximum HO-1 concentration was an independent predictor of hospital mortality. Patients with the HO-1 -413T/GT(L)/+99C haplotype had lower HO-1 plasma concentrations and lower incidence of multiple organ dysfunction. However, HO-1 polymorphisms were not associated with ICU or hospital mortality. The present study shows that HO-1 is induced in response to stress in both experimental animal models and severely ill patients. HO-1 played an important role in the recovery and repair of infarcted rat hearts. HO-1 induction and CO donor pretreatment enhanced cardiac regeneration after MI, and HO-1 may protect against pathological left ventricular remodeling. Furthermore, HO-1 induction potentially may protect against I/R injury and cardiac dysfunction in isolated rat hearts. In critically ill ICU patients, HO-1 plasma levels correlate with the degree of organ dysfunction, disease severity, and mortality, suggesting that HO-1 may be useful as a marker of disease severity and in the assessment of outcome of critically ill patients.

Carbon dynamics in peatlands under changing hydrology : Effects of water level drawdown on litter quality, microbial enzyme activities and litter decomposition rates

Pristine peatlands are carbon (C) accumulating wetland ecosystems sustained by a high water level (WL) and consequent anoxia that slows down decomposition. Persistent WL drawdown as a response to climate and/or land-use change directly affects decomposition: increased oxygenation stimulates decomposition of the old C (peat) sequestered under prior anoxic conditions. Responses of the new C (plant litter) in terms of quality, production and decomposability, and the consequences for the whole C cycle of peatlands are not fully understood. WL drawdown induces changes in plant community resulting in shift in dominance from Sphagnum and graminoids to shrubs and trees. There is increasing evidence that the indirect effects of WL drawdown via the changes in plant communities will have more impact on the ecosystem C cycling than any direct effects. The aim of this study is to disentangle the direct and indirect effects of WL drawdown on the new C by measuring the relative importance of 1) environmental parameters (WL depth, temperature, soil chemistry) and 2) plant community composition on litter production, microbial activity, litter decomposition rates and, consequently, on the C accumulation. This information is crucial for modelling C cycle under changing climate and/or land-use. The effects of WL drawdown were tested in a large-scale experiment with manipulated WL at two time scales and three nutrient regimes. Furthermore, the effect of climate on litter decomposability was tested along a north-south gradient. Additionally, a novel method for estimating litter chemical quality and decomposability was explored by combining Near infrared spectroscopy with multivariate modelling. WL drawdown had direct effects on litter quality, microbial community composition and activity and litter decomposition rates. However, the direct effects of WL drawdown were overruled by the indirect effects via changes in litter type composition and production. Short-term (years) responses to WL drawdown were small. In long-term (decades), dramatically increased litter inputs resulted in large accumulation of organic matter in spite of increased decomposition rates. Further, the quality of the accumulated matter greatly changed from that accumulated in pristine conditions. The response of a peatland ecosystem to persistent WL drawdown was more pronounced at sites with more nutrients. The study demonstrates that the shift in vegetation composition as a response to climate and/or land-use change is the main factor affecting peatland ecosystem C cycle and thus dynamic vegetation is a necessity in any models applied for estimating responses of C fluxes to changes in the environment. The time scale for vegetation changes caused by hydrological changes needs to extend to decades. This study provides grouping of litter types (plant species and part) into functional types based on their chemical quality and/or decomposability that the models could utilize. Further, the results clearly show a drop in soil temperature as a response to WL drawdown when an initially open peatland converts into a forest ecosystem, which has not yet been considered in the existing models.

Nucleotidases in plants : I. Partial purification and properties of the enzyme hydrolyzing flavine adenine dinucleotide from mung bean seedlings (Phaseolus radiatus)

The occurrence of an enzyme hydrolyzing flavine adenine dinucleotide (FAD) was demonstrated in a number of seed extracts. The enzyme from Phaseolus radiatus was purified 104-fold by fractionation with ammonium sulfate and ethanol and by negative adsorption on alumina Cγ gel. The enzyme cleaves the POP bond of FAD to yield flavine mononucleotide and adenosine monophosphate. When reduced glutathione is added to the enzyme, it cleaves FAD at the COP bond to yield riboflavine, adenosine, and pyrophosphate, Both the activities are optimal at a pH of 7.2 and at a temperature of 37 . The Km for both the activities is 1.65 × 10−5 M. The stoichiometry and the identity of the products of both the treated and untreated enzyme were established. The untreated enzyme was not inhibited by pCMB or arsenite, but the treated enzyme was sensitive to both these inhibitors. The inhibition by pCMB could be reversed by monothiols and the inhibition by arsenite by dithiols.

Part I: Enzyme replacement versus neurotrophic factor viral vector-mediated gene therapy of Parkinson’s disease, Part II: The effects of orally dosed tolcapone and entacapone on dopamine metabolism in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens in rats

Part I: Parkinson’s disease is a slowly progressive neurodegenerative disorder in which particularly the dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra pars compacta degenerate and die. Current conventional treatment is based on restraining symptoms but it has no effect on the progression of the disease. Gene therapy research has focused on the possibility of restoring the lost brain function by at least two means: substitution of critical enzymes needed for the synthesis of dopamine and slowing down the progression of the disease by supporting the functions of the remaining nigral dopaminergic neurons by neurotrophic factors. The striatal levels of enzymes such as tyrosine hydroxylase, dopadecarboxylase and GTP-CH1 are decreased as the disease progresses. By replacing one or all of the enzymes, dopamine levels in the striatum may be restored to normal and behavioral impairments caused by the disease may be ameliorated especially in the later stages of the disease. The neurotrophic factors glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and neurturin have shown to protect and restore functions of dopaminergic cell somas and terminals as well as improve behavior in animal lesion models. This therapy may be best suited at the early stages of the disease when there are more dopaminergic neurons for neurotrophic factors to reach. Viral vector-mediated gene transfer provides a tool to deliver proteins with complex structures into specific brain locations and provides long-term protein over-expression. Part II: The aim of our study was to investigate the effects of two orally dosed COMT inhibitors entacapone (10 and 30 mg/kg) and tolcapone (10 and 30 mg/kg) with a subsequent administration of a peripheral dopadecarboxylase inhibitor carbidopa (30 mg/kg) and L- dopa (30 mg/kg) on dopamine and its metabolite levels in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats using dual-probe in vivo microdialysis. Earlier similarly designed studies have only been conducted in the dorsal striatum. We also confirmed the result of earlier ex vivo studies regarding the effects of intraperitoneally dosed tolcapone (30 mg/kg) and entacapone (30 mg/kg) on striatal and hepatic COMT activity. The results obtained from the dorsal striatum were generally in line with earlier studies, where tolcapone tended to increase dopamine and DOPAC levels and decrease HVA levels. Entacapone tended to keep striatal dopamine and HVA levels elevated longer than in controls and also tended to elevate the levels of DOPAC. Surprisingly in the nucleus accumbens, dopamine levels after either dose of entacapone or tolcapone were not elevated. Accumbal DOPAC levels, especially in the tolcapone 30 mg/kg group, were elevated nearly to the same extent as measured in the dorsal striatum. Entacapone 10 mg/kg elevated accumbal HVA levels more than the dose of 30 mg/kg and the effect was more pronounced in the nucleus accumbens than in the dorsal striatum. This suggests that entacapone 30 mg/kg has minor central effects. Also our ex vivo study results obtained from the dorsal striatum suggest that entacapone 30 mg/kg has minor and transient central effects, even though central HVA levels were not suppressed below those of the control group in either brain area in the microdialysis study. Both entacapone and tolcapone suppressed hepatic COMT activity more than striatal COMT activity. Tolcapone was more effective than entacapone in the dorsal striatum. The differences between dopamine and its metabolite levels in the dorsal striatum and nucleus accumbens may be due to different properties of the two brain areas.