Biogas and bio-hydrogen: production and uses. A review

The first part of this essay aims at investigating the already available and promising technologies for the biogas and bio-hydrogen production from anaerobic digestion of different organic substrates. One strives to show all the peculiarities of this complicate process, such as continuity, number of stages, moisture, biomass preservation and rate of feeding. The main outcome of this part is the awareness of the huge amount of reactor configurations, each of which suitable for a few types of substrate and circumstance. Among the most remarkable results, one may consider first of all the wet continuous stirred tank reactors (CSTR), right to face the high waste production rate in urbanised and industrialised areas. Then, there is the up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB), aimed at the biomass preservation in case of highly heterogeneous feedstock, which can also be treated in a wise co-digestion scheme. On the other hand, smaller and scattered rural realities can be served by either wet low-rate digesters for homogeneous agricultural by-products (e.g. fixed-dome) or the cheap dry batch reactors for lignocellulose waste and energy crops (e.g. hybrid batch-UASB). The biological and technical aspects raised during the first chapters are later supported with bibliographic research on the important and multifarious large-scale applications the products of the anaerobic digestion may have. After the upgrading techniques, particular care was devoted to their importance as biofuels, highlighting a further and more flexible solution consisting in the reforming to syngas. Then, one shows the electricity generation and the associated heat conversion, stressing on the high potential of fuel cells (FC) as electricity converters. Last but not least, both the use as vehicle fuel and the injection into the gas pipes are considered as promising applications. The consideration of the still important issues of the bio-hydrogen management (e.g. storage and delivery) may lead to the conclusion that it would be far more challenging to implement than bio-methane, which can potentially “inherit” the assets of the similar fossil natural gas. Thanks to the gathered knowledge, one devotes a chapter to the energetic and financial study of a hybrid power system supplied by biogas and made of different pieces of equipment (natural gas thermocatalitic unit, molten carbonate fuel cell and combined-cycle gas turbine structure). A parallel analysis on a bio-methane-fed CCGT system is carried out in order to compare the two solutions. Both studies show that the apparent inconvenience of the hybrid system actually emphasises the importance of extending the computations to a broader reality, i.e. the upstream processes for the biofuel production and the environmental/social drawbacks due to fossil-derived emissions. Thanks to this “boundary widening”, one can realise the hidden benefits of the hybrid over the CCGT system.

Aplicación de un tratamiento biológico a las aguas residuales provenientes de una destilería de alcohol de caña, utilizando un reactor UASB

En este trabajo se llevó a cabo el tratamiento de vinazas mediante dos tecnologías anaerobias. Se dividió en cuatro estudios técnicos. El primero fue el arranque y estabilización del reactor UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket), en dónde se evaluó la estabilización mediante la eficiencia de remoción de DQO y la granulación del lodo. El segundo estudio evaluó el rendimiento del reactor UASB frente a diferentes Cva. El tercer estudio evaluó el efecto del TRH sobre la eficiencia del reactor UASB, y el cuarto de ellos fue evaluar el rendimiento del RABF (Reactor Anaerobio de Biomasa Fija). El reactor UASB de 2,6 L de capacidad, fue arrancado por lotes, con seis ensayos utilizando vinaza como sustrato. Se obtuvieron eficiencias de remoción en DQO en un rango de 79-91%, en los seis lotes. Se obtuvo formación de gránulos con diámetro (Ø) de 0,85-1,15 mm y un coeficiente de esfericidad (Є) de 0,7-0,77. Se logró la granulación de lodos tras 2 meses de operación. Alcanzada la estabilización del reactor UASB, se siguió una operación en flujo continuo. Las Cva probadas de 1, 2, 4 y 6 gDQO/L.d para el reactor UASB dan una respuesta bastante favorable con respecto al rendimiento del reactor, ya que presento eficiencias de remoción de DQOs del 51 hasta el 76%, eficiencias similares a los reportados por la literatura. En el estudio de TRH se operó con Cva de 6 gDQO/L.d y los TRH fueron de 24, 12 ,5 ,3 y 1 día. El % de eliminación de DQO fue de 51, 60, 57, 60 y 63 % remoción en DQOsoluble, respectivamente. Se alcanzó una producción de biogás máximo de 5.283 ml/d, pero al reducir el TRH se observó una reducción proporcional del volumen total de biogás. El %CH4 contenido en el biogás aumento al disminuir el TRH, reflejando valores de 80 al 92 % de CH4. El RABF con un volumen de 8,2 L, utilizo tubos de plástico corrugado como medio de soporte para las bacterias. Se aplicaron las siguientes Cva; 0,5, 1, 3 y 6 gDQO/L.d. El reactor RABF presento una excelente remoción de la materia orgánica (80% DQOs), una producción de biogás estable, y un contenido en CH4 del biogás muy interesante. Sin embargo, para una Cva superior a 3 gDQO/L.d empezó un comportamiento inesperado de reducción de capacidad. Las condiciones hidrodinámicas del reactor UASB son decisivas para la formación de los gránulos, condición previa para iniciar el flujo continuo. Al operar el reactor UASB en modo continuo, se pudo evaluar las mejores condiciones de operación para este tipo de residuo (vinaza). La Cva de 6 gDQO/L.d para el reactor UASB alimentado con vinaza bruta representa el límite de su capacidad. Sin embargo, al aumentar la Cva se genera una mayor producción de biogás y metano. La eficiencia de remoción de la DQO soluble es independiente del TRH, para una Cva de 6 g DQO/L•d y las condiciones de TRH probadas (24, 12, 5, 3 y 1 días). Los valores de remoción de DQO alcanzados son un poco superior a los valores de biodegradabilidad anaerobia de la vinaza observados de 50 %. De manera general, la reducción del TRH o bien la dilución de la vinaza no presenta un efecto significativo sobre la remoción de la materia orgánica soluble, pero si lo presenta en la remoción de sulfatos reduciendo indirectamente su toxicidad. El soporte termoplástico inoculado en el RABF y alimentado con vinaza bruta, actuó como un filtro, además de obtener buenos resultados en eliminación de DQO, pero dada las dimensiones y la altura del relleno se frena la evacuación del metano. This work was carried out by treatment vinasses with two anaerobic technologies. It was divided into four technical studies. The first was the start up and stabilization Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket (UASB) reactor, where the stability was evaluated by the removal efficiency of COD and sludge granulation. The second study evaluated the performance of the UASB reactor against different OLR. The third study evaluated the effect of HRT on the efficiency of the UASB reactor, and the fourth of which was evaluate the performance Fixed Biomass Anaerobic (FBA) reactor. The UASB reactor of 2,6 L capacity, was started in batch, with six assays using vinasse as substrate. Were obtained removal efficiencies of COD in the range of 79- 91% in the six batches. Forming granules were obtained with a diameter (Ø) of 0,85- 1,15 mm and sphericity coefficient (Є) of 0,7 to 0,77. Sludge granulation was achieved after 2 months of operation. Once stabilization is achieved of the UASB reactor, it was followed by a continuous flow operation. The OLR tested 1, 2, 4 and 6 gCOD/L.d for UASB reactor gives a very favorable response regarding the performance of the reactor, as presented COD5 removal efficiencies of 51 to 76%, similar efficiencies those reported in the literature The HRT study was operated with an OLR of 6 gCOD/L.d and HRT were 24, 12, 5, 3 and 1 day. The removal efficiency was 51, 60, 57, 60 and 63% in soluble COD, respectively. It reached a maximum biogas production of 5.283 ml / d, but by reducing the HRT showed a proportional reduction in the total volume of biogas. The %CH4 content in the biogas increased with decreasing TRH, reflecting values of 80 to 92% of CH4. The FBA reactor with a volume of 8,2 L, used corrugated plastic tubes as carrier for bacteria transportation. The following OLR was applied, 0,5, 1, 3 and 6 gCOD/L.d. The FBA reactor showed an excellent removal of organic matter (80% CODS), a stable biogas production, and CH4 content very interesting. However, for more than 3 gCOD/L.d OLR began with unexpected behavior of capacity reduction. The UASB reactor hydrodynamic conditions are decisive for the formation of the granules, precondition to start the continuous flow. By operating the UASB reactor in continuous mode, it was possible to evaluate the best operating conditions for this type of waste (vinasse). The OLR of 6 gCOD/L.d for the UASB reactor fed with raw vinasse represents the limit of its capacity. However, with increasing OLR creates increased biogas production and methane. The removal efficiency of soluble COD is independent of HRT for OLR of 6 gCOD/L.d and HRT conditions tested (24, 12, 5, 3 and 1 day). COD Removal values achieved are slightly higher than the values of the vinasse anaerobic biodegradability of observed at 50%. Generally, reduction of HRT or vinasse dilution does not present a significant effect on the removal of the soluble organic matter; however if it occurs in the removal of sulfate reducing indirectly its toxicity. The thermoplastic support inoculated in FBA reactor and fed with raw vinasse, acted as a filter, in addition to obtaining good results in COD removal, but given the size and height of the filling slows evacuation of methane.

Tratamiento de vinazas de alcohol de caña en un reactor UASB

Para la realización de este artículo, se evaluó el rendimiento del reactor UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) utilizando vinazas de alcohol de caña como sustrato.

Avaliação do antagonismo do efeito do sódio sobre o tratamento de água residuária de Charqueada com elevada salinidade em reator anaeróbio de manta de lodo (UASB)

As águas residuárias provenientes da indústria do charque são conhecidas por apresentarem elevado teor de cloreto de sódio, aliado a grandes concentrações de matéria orgânica proveniente do sangue liberado ao longo do processo industrial. Esse tipo de água residuária apresenta potencial para degradação biológica, contudo, o cloreto de sódio, em concentração elevada, pode inibir a atividade dos microrganismos e, em alguns casos, levar sistemas biológicos à falência. No presente trabalho, foi avaliada a viabilidade de degradação anaeróbia de efluente sintético de Charqueada contendo elevado teor de cloreto de sódio, em reator anaeróbio tipo UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket), em escala de laboratório. Foram utilizados 4 reatores, alimentados com água residuária sintética com características similares à água residuária de Charqueada. O reator 1 foi utilizado como controle, o reator 2 recebeu NaCl e os demais (3 e 4) foram operados na presença de NaCl acrescidos de: betaína e potássio com cálcio, respectivamente. Os compostos citados são conhecidos como antagonizantes, por possuirem capacidade de minimizar o efeito inibitório do sódio sobre o processo de digestão anaeróbia. Os reatores foram inoculados com lodo de reator UASB e submetidos à concentração de 5000 mg/L de matéria orgânica, como DQO. A carga orgânica aplicada foi de 5 Kg/m3.d e os reatores não suportaram tal carga. Reiniciou-se a operação com aumento progressivo da DQO de 500 a 2000 mg/L resultando em cargas orgânicas de 0,5 a 2,0 Kg/m3.d, respectivamente. Após estabilização dos reatores, iniciou-se a fase de introdução de cloreto de sódio (1.500 a 13.500 mg/L) e antagonizantes com aumento progressivo a cada fase. Na presença ou ausência de antagonizantes, os reatores 2, 3 e 4 não tiveram o desempenho alterado até a concentração de NaCl de 6000 mg/L. Na presença de 9000 mg/L de NaCl, a betaína se mostrou pouco efetiva como soluto compatível no reator 3 e os antagonizantes do reator 4, potássio e cálcio, apresentaram efeitos estimulatórios. As morfologias encontradas ao longo do experimento foram cocos, víbrios, bacilos, sarcinas, além de morfologias semelhantes a Methanosarcina sp. e Methanosaeta sp. O aumento da concentração de cloreto de sódio provocou a redição da população de Arqueas.

Pós-tratamento físico-químico por flotação de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios de manta de lodo (UASB)

O emprego da flotação por ar dissolvido (FAD) para o pós-tratamento de efluentes de reatores anaeróbios aparenta ser atraente considerando algumas características desse processo físico-químico. A FAD é reconhecidamente um processo de alta taxa, particularmente eficiente na remoção de material particulado em suspensão e de flocos produzidos pela coagulação química de águas residuárias. Além disso, há produção de lodo espesso e provavelmente arraste de parcela de gases e de compostos voláteis, presentes nos efluentes anaeróbios. Entretanto, a concepção de sistemas de FAD deve ser precedida por ensaios em unidades de flotação em escala de laboratório, permitindo a determinação dos principais parâmetros do processo. Neste trabalho, são apresentados e discutidos os resultados obtidos em laboratório e em instalação piloto de flotação com escoamento contínuo recebendo efluente de reator anaeróbio de manta de lodo (UASB), com 18 m3 de volume, tratando esgoto sanitário. Os ensaios em unidade em escala de laboratório foram realizados utilizando diferentes dosagens de cloreto férrico (entre 30 e 110 mg/L) ou de polímero catiônico (entre 1,0 e 16,0 mg/L), atuando como coagulantes. Além disso, foram estudadas as condições de floculação (tempo de 15 e de 25 min, e gradiente médio de velocidade de floculação entre 30 e 100 s-1) e diferentes valores de quantidade de ar fornecido ao processo (S*, entre 4,7 e 28,5 g de ar por m3 de efluente). Com a instalação piloto de FAD foram realizados apenas ensaios preliminares variando-se a taxa de aplicação superficial (140 e 210 m3/m2/d) para diferentes valores de S* (14,8 a 29,5 g de ar por m3 de efluente). Com o emprego de dosagem de 65 mg/L de cloreto férrico, de tempo de 15 min e gradiente médio de velocidade de floculação de 80 s-1 e de 19 g de ar por m3 de efluente, foram observados excelentes resultados em laboratório, com elevadas remoções de DQO (89%), de fosfato total (96%), de sólidos suspensos totais (96%), de turbidez (98%), de cor aparente (91%), de sulfetos (não detectado) e NTK (47%). Considerando o sistema UASB e FAD, nos testes em laboratório, foram observadas remoções globais de 97,7% de DQO, de 98,0% de fosfato total, de 98,9% de SST, de 99,5% de turbidez, de 97,8% de cor aparente e de 59,0% de NTK. Nos ensaios com a instalação piloto de FAD, o sistema apresentou remoções de 93,6% de DQO, de 87,1% de SST, de 90% de sulfetos e de 30% de NTK.

Metabolic model for glycogen-accumulating organisms in anaerobic/aerobic activated sludge systems

Glycogen-accumulating organisms (GAO) have the potential to directly compete with polyphosphate-accumulating organisms (PAO) in EBPR systems as both are able to take up VFA anaerobically and grow on the intracellular storage products aerobically. Under anaerobic conditions GAO hydrolyse glycogen to gain energy and reducing equivalents to take up VFA and to synthesise polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA). In the subsequent aerobic stage, PHA is being oxidised to gain energy for glycogen replenishment (from PHA) and for cell growth. This article describes a complete anaerobic and aerobic model for GAO based on the understanding of their metabolic pathways. The anaerobic model has been developed and reported previously, while the aerobic metabolic model was developed in this study. It is based on the assumption that acetyl-CoA and propionyl-CoA go through the catabolic and anabolic processes independently. Experimental validation shows that the integrated model can predict the anaerobic and aerobic results very well. It was found in this study that at pH 7 the maximum acetate uptake rate of GAO was slower than that reported for PAO in the anaerobic stage. On the other hand, the net biomass production per C-mol acetate added is about 9% higher for GAO than for PAO. This would indicate that PAO and GAO each have certain competitive advantages during different parts of the anaerobic/aerobic process cycle. (C) 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The appraisal of mesophilic anaerobic digestion and thermophilic aerobic digestion in the treatment of municipal sludge in Ireland

It has been well documented that the optimum feedstock for anaerobic digesters consists of readily biodegradable compounds, as found in primary sludge or even a mixed substrate of primary and excess activated sludge. Due to the requirements of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Plant Directive of 1991, the quantities of secondary sludge generated is set to increase substantially. A pilot scale study was undertaken to evaluate the performance of both Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion and Thermophilic Aerobic digestion in the treatment of secondary sludge. The results indicated that the anaerobic pilot scale digester achieved a greater solids destruction than the aerobic pilot plant averaging at 28% T.S. removal verses 20% for the aerobic digester, despite the fact that secondary sludge is the optimum feedstock for aerobic digestion. This can, however, be attributed to the greater biomass yield experienced with aerobic systems, and to the absence of Autothermal conditions. At present, the traditional technique of Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion is in widespread application throughout Ireland, for the stabilisation of sewage sludge. There is only one Autothermal Thermophilic Aerobic Digester at present situated in Killarney, Co. Kerry. A further objectives of the study was to compare full-scale applications of Mesophilic Anaerobic Digestion to ATAD. Two Sludge Treatment plants, situated in Co. Kerry, were used for this purpose, and were assessed mainly under the following headings; process stability, solids reduction on average, the ATAD plant in Killarney has the advantage of producing a “Class A” Biosolid in terms of pathogen reduction, and can effectively treat double the quantity of sludge. In addition, economically the ATAD plant is cheaper to run, costing €190 / t.d.s verses €211 / t.d.s. for the anaerobic digester in Tralee. An overview of additional operational Anaerobic Digestion Plants throughout Ireland is also presented.

Biological leaching of Mn, Al, Zn, Cu and Ti in an anaerobic sewage sludge effectuated by Thiobacillus ferrooxidans and its effect on metal partitioning

The chemical fractionation and bioleaching of Mn, At, Zn, Cu and Ti in municipal sewage sludge were investigated using Thiobacillus ferrooxidans as leaching microorganism. As a result of the bacterial activity, ORP increase and pH reduction were observed. Metal solubilization was accomplished only in experimental systems supplemented with energy source (Fe(II)). The solubilization efficiency approached similar to80% for Mn and Zn, 24% for Cu, 10% for At and 0.2% for Ti. The chemical fractionation of Mn, At, Zn, Cu and Ti was investigated using a five-step sequential extraction procedure employing KNO3. KF, Na4P2O7, EDTA and HNO3. The results show that the bioleaching process affected the partitioning of Mn and Zn, increasing its percentage of elution in the KNO3 fraction while reducing it in the KF, Na4P2O7 and EDTA fractions. No significant effect was detected on the partitioning of Cu and Al. However, quantitatively the metals Mn, Zn, Cu and At were extracted with higher efficiency after the bacterial activity. Titanium was unaffected by the bioleaching process in both qualitative and quantitative aspects. (C) 2002 Elsevier B.V. Ltd. All rights reserved.

Comparison of hexamethyidisilazane and critical point drying treatments for SEM analysis of anaerobic biofilms and granular sludge

We present a fast procedure for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis in which hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS) solvent, instead of the critical point drying, is used to remove liquids from a microbiological specimen. The results indicate that the HMDS solvent is suitable for drying samples of anaerobic cells for examination by SEM and does not cause cell structure disruption.

Bioleaching of metals from anaerobic sewage sludge: Effects of total solids, leaching microorganisms, and energy source

The effects of municipal sewage sludge solids concentration, leaching microorganisms (Thiobacillus thiooxidans or Thiobacillus ferrooxidans) and the addition of energy source (SO or Fe(II)) on the bioleaching of metals from sewage sludge has been investigated under laboratory conditions using shake flasks. The results show that metal solubilization was better accomplished if additional energy source is supplemented to the microorganisms and that T. thiooxidans furnishes, in general, more adequate conditions for the bioleaching than T. ferrooxidans. At a total solids concentration of 70 g L-1 (originally present in the sludge) pH drop and ORP increase are attenuated, so metal solubilization is negatively affected. Tt was also demonstrated that if lead (Pb) solubilization is to be achieved, than a special combination of microorganism/energy source must be applied.

A potential application of sludge-based catalysts for the anaerobic bio-decolorization of tartrazine dye.

Two highly efficient (K2CO3/sludge carbon and ZnCl2/sludge carbon) solids were prepared by chemical addition following carbonization at 800 °C and were tested for anaerobic reduction of tartrazine dye in a continuous upflow packed-bed biological reactor, and their performance was compared to that of commercial activated carbon (CAC). The chemical and structural information of the solids was subjected to various characterizations in order to understand the mechanism for anaerobic decolorization, and efficiency for SBCZN800 and SBCPC800 materials was 87% and 74%, respectively, at a short space time (τ) of 2.0 min. A first-order kinetic model fitted the experimental points and kinetic constants of 0.40, 0.92 and 1.46 min(-1) were obtained for SBCZN800, SBCPC800 and CAC, respectively. The experimental results revealed that performance of solids in the anaerobic reduction of tartrazine dye can depend on several factors including chemical agents, carbonization, microbial population, chemical groups and surface chemistry. The Langmuir and Freundlich models are successfully described in the batch adsorption data. Based on these observations, a cost-effective sludge-based catalyst can be produced from harmful sewage sludge for the treatment of industrial effluents.

Two-phase anaerobic digestion for enhanced stabilization and methanation of sewage sludge /

"ILENR/AE-92/02."

Two-stage thermophilic-mesophilic anaerobic digestion of waste activated sludge-from a biological nutrient removal plant

A two-stage thermophilic-mesophilic anaerobic digestion pilot-plant was operated solely on waste activated sludge (WAS) from a biological nutrient removal (BNR) plant. The first-stage thermophilic reactor (HRT 2 days) was operated at 47, 54 and 60 degrees C. The second-stage mesophilic digester (HRT 15 days) was held at a constant temperature of 36-37 degrees C. For comparison with a single-stage mesophilic process, the mesophilic digester was also operated separately with an HRT of 17 days and temperature of 36-37 degrees C. The results showed a truly thermophilic stage (60 degrees C) was essential to achieve good WAS degradation. The lower thermophilic temperatures examined did not offer advantages over single-stage mesophilic treatment in terms of COD and VS removal. At a thermophilic temperature of 60 degrees C, the plant achieved 35% VS reduction, representing a 46% increase compared to the single-stage mesophilic digester. This is a significant level of degradation which could make such a process viable in situations where there is no primary sludge generated. The fate of the biologically stored phosphorus in this BNR sludge was also investigated. Over 80% of the incoming phosphorus remained bound up with the solids and was not released into solution during the WAS digestion. Therefore only a small fraction of phosphorus would be recycled to the main treatment plant with the dewatering stream.