Development of micro-shock wave assisted dry particle and fluid jet delivery system

Small quantity of energetic material coated on the inner wall of a polymer tube is proposed as a new method to generate micro-shock waves in the laboratory. These micro-shock waves have been harnessed to develop a novel method of delivering dry particle and liquid jet into the target. We have generated micro-shock waves with the help of reactive explosive compound high melting explosive (octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine) and traces of aluminium] coated polymer tube, utilising 9 J of energy. The detonation process is initiated electrically from one end of the tube, while the micro-shock wave followed by the products of detonation escape from the open end of the polymer tube. The energy available at the open end of the polymer tube is used to accelerate tungsten micro-particles coated on the other side of the diaphragm or force a liquid jet out of a small cavity filled with the liquid. The micro-particles deposited on a thin metal diaphragm (typically 100-mu m thick) were accelerated to high velocity using micro-shock waves to penetrate the target. Tungsten particles of 0.7 mu m diameter have been successfully delivered into agarose gel targets of various strengths (0.6-1.0 %). The device has been tested by delivering micro-particles into potato tuber and Arachis hypogaea Linnaeus (ground nut) stem tissue. Along similar lines, liquid jets of diameter 200-250 mu m (methylene blue, water and oils) have been successfully delivered into agarose gel targets of various strengths. Successful vaccination against murine salmonellosis was demonstrated as a biological application of this device. The penetration depths achieved in the experimental targets are very encouraging to develop a future device for biological and biomedical applications.

Efecto de diferentes leguminosas como cultivos antecesores sobre el crecimiento, desarrollo y rendimiento del sorgo (Sorghum bicolor (L) Moench) y maíz (Zea mays L.)

Con la finalidad de estudiar el comportamiento del crecimiento, desarrollo y rendimiento de los cultivos de sorgo (Sorghum bicolor. L. Moench) híbrido D-55 y maíz (Zea mays L) variedad NB-30, bajo los efectos de diferentes cultivos leguminosos: Maní (Arachis hypogaea L. ), caupí (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp), soya (Glycine max L. Merril) y frijol común ( Phaseolus vulgaris L.) como cultivos antecesores, se realizó un experimento de campo, utilizando un diseño de Bloques Completos al Azar con doce tratamientos y cuatro repeticiones realizados durante la siembra de primera y postrera de 1991, en el Centro Experimental La Compañía; Carazo, cuyo suelos son de topografía plana, textura media, franco limoso ( Typic Durandept ). De los resultados obtenidos se llegó a la conclusión que los diferentes cultivos leguminosos influyeron sobre el crecimiento, desarrollo y rendimiento de los cultivos de sorgo y maíz, ya que estos fueron afectados de manera significativa por los cultivos antecesores. Por otro lado se comprobó que el sorgo y el maíz, cuando tienen como cultivo antecesor a las leguminosas, sus rendimientos fueron superiores que cuando se tiene al sorgo y al maíz como cultivo antecesor. De las leguminosas, el cultivo de maní tuvo un mayor efecto sobre el rendimiento del sorgo y maíz. (4,391 y 1,675 kg/ha respectivamente). Se comprobó cuantitativamente el efecto negativo de utilizar a los cultivos de sorgo y maíz como cultivos antecesores a su mismo cultivo, ya que los rendimientos disminuyen considerablemente, siendo estos los siguientes: sorgo-sorgo obtuvo 2,170 kg/ha., maíz-sorgo dio un rendimiento de 2,373 kg/ha, maíz-maíz presentó 762 kg/ha, y finalmente el tratamiento sorgo-maíz rindió 674 kg/ha.

镉对花生品质影响及胁迫响应机制研究

近年来，我国花生重金属镉超标的现象屡见不鲜，致使花生在我国出口创汇的能力受到了严重影响。因此，本项研究选用北方两种花生－锦花5号和阜花13号为供试材料，采用室外盆栽方式，初步探讨了镉胁迫对花生品质的影响及花生对镉胁迫的响应机制，揭示了花生易富集镉和对镉高耐性的原因。 1．在外源高镉处理下，两品种花生的产量随镉处理浓度的增加而降低；籽实Cd含量均随土壤中Cd含量的增加而显著增加（p＜0.05），在土壤低Cd处理时，花生籽实更易富集Cd；花生受Cd胁迫后，籽实的亮氨酸含量受Cd的影响较为严重；氨基酸组成比例在较低镉处理剂量下未受到影响。 2．受Cd污染的花生籽实，种皮Cd含量较高；蛋白质是络合镉的主要营养部位，而脂肪中镉的含量甚微，研究处理范围内均低于食品中Cd的限量值0.2 mg•kg-1 ；因此供试花生籽实不能作为人体对植物蛋白的来源，但可以作为人体对食用油脂的来源。 3．花生籽实中存在植物螯合肽PC4，它在花生中镉的耐性方面发挥着重要的作用。尽管非蛋白巯基（NPT）、半胱氨酸（Cys）、PC4和脯氨酸（Pro）含量受作物品种和外源镉处理剂量的影响，但它们对籽实中重金属镉的络合发挥着作用。此外，脯氨酸（Pro）还可以作为花生受镉胁迫的生物指示物。

Agrossistemas alternativos para produtores de agricultura migratória em Presidente Figueiredo-AM.

Com o objetivo de se estudar alternativas de uso da terra para pequenos produtores de agricultura migratoria no municipio de Presidente Figueiredo (AM), dois modelos de sistemas agroflorestais foram implantados em tres propriedades rurais do municipio. Os sistemas foram constituidos por sistemas perenes (cupuacu, pupunha, inga) e semiperene (banana). Nos espacos disponiveis foram testados arranjos sequenciais de componentes anuais: Sistema I - mandioca, caupi + mandioca; Sistema II - arroz, caupi + mandioca. Os sistemas, no primeiro ano, foram testados com: 1) adubacao NPK + M. O.; 2) sem adubacao; e 3) com duas leguminosas (Arachis hypogaea e Stizolobium aterrimum) de cobertura de solo. No segundo ano, foram aplicados, nos tratamentos sem adubacao, uma dose de P. Analises do solo indicaram valores altos para aluminio trocavel e baixos para carbono, caracterizando a baixa fertilidade natural do solo. A biomassa da parte aerea vegetal da copoeira de dois anos (cerca de 4t/ha de materia seca) promoveu, apos a queima, aumento significativo nos teores de nutrientes no solo. Os resultadores evidenciaram o efeito da adubacao no crescimento e producao das plantas, no primeiro ano. A maior producao total obtida por area (58% de mandioca, 78% de caupi e 100% de banana), durante o periodo, foi conseguida por tratamento com adubacao, superando os demais tratamento em quase cinco vezes os valores da receita, o que leva a acreditar serem economicamente viaveis os sistemas estudados, com tendencia de sustentabilidade a longo prazo.

Capacidad de uso del agua del subsuelo y productividad de dos genotipos de maní : efecto de la disponibilidad hídrica subsuperficial y la oferta fototermal.

En la región manisera de Córdoba, la combinación de distintos antecesores del maní en la rotación y la variabilidad de las lluvias otoñales determinan diferentes contenidos de agua en el subsuelo (60-200 cm). El agua sub-superficial debería contribuir a la toma de decisión entre una siembra temprana (mayor déficit hídrico en período crítico) o tardía (menor oferta fototermal en etapa reproductiva), así como a la elección del genotipo. Se realizó un experimento a campo durante 2008-2009 con (i) déficit hídrico desde R3 a partir de cultivos creciendo con dos niveles de agua disponible subsuperficial (ADC 70 por ciento y ADC 30 por ciento), (ii) dos épocas de siembra (21-oct. y 2-dic.), y (iii) dos genotipos (moderno ASEM y antiguo FLORMAN). Se midió periódicamente el contenido de agua edáfica para determinar (i) la velocidad aparente de profundización de las raíces (VAPR), (ii) la profundidad máxima de absorción de agua (PMA) y (iii) la tasa de absorción de agua (K). Además se midió: el rendimiento en grano, y sus componentes (número de granos y peso del grano) y las eficiencias en el uso de la radiación y del agua. La menor ADC penalizó doblemente la capacidad de uso del agua, disminuyendo la VAPR y PMA como también K. Esto siempre causó fuertes caídas en el rendimiento, principalmente por reducción en el número de grano, bien representadas por la respuesta de este último con la tasa de crecimiento del cultivo en el período crítico. Un menor tamaño de los destinos reproductivos provocó un efecto de retrocontrol de la actividad de la fuente, reduciendo la eficiencia del uso de los recursos agua y radiación. El rendimiento de ASEM superó al de Florman en todos los casos. Todas las combinaciones de ADC x genotipo en siembra tardía redujeron el rendimiento respecto a su contraparte de la fecha temprana, con excepción de ASEM ADC 70 por ciento Por lo tanto, el uso del genotipo ASEM combinado con buena provisión de agua en el subsuelo permite ampliar la ventana de fechas de siembra manteniendo el rendimiento del cultivo.

Capacidad de uso del agua del subsuelo y productividad de dos genotipos de maní : efecto de la disponibilidad hídrica subsuperficial y la oferta fototermal.

En la región manisera de Córdoba, la combinación de distintos antecesores del maní en la rotación y la variabilidad de las lluvias otoñales determinan diferentes contenidos de agua en el subsuelo (60-200 cm). El agua sub-superficial debería contribuir a la toma de decisión entre una siembra temprana (mayor déficit hídrico en período crítico)o tardía (menor oferta fototermal en etapa reproductiva), así como a la elección del genotipo. Se realizó un experimento a campo durante 2008-2009 con (i)déficit hídrico desde R3 a partir de cultivos creciendo con dos niveles de agua disponible subsuperficial (ADC 70 por ciento y ADC 30 por ciento), (ii)dos épocas de siembra (21-oct. y 2-dic.), y (iii)dos genotipos (moderno ASEM y antiguo FLORMAN). Se midió periódicamente el contenido de agua edáfica para determinar (i)la velocidad aparente de profundización de las raíces (VAPR), (ii)la profundidad máxima de absorción de agua (PMA)y (iii)la tasa de absorción de agua (K). Además se midió: el rendimiento en grano, y sus componentes (número de granos y peso del grano)y las eficiencias en el uso de la radiación y del agua. La menor ADC penalizó doblemente la capacidad de uso del agua, disminuyendo la VAPR y PMA como también K. Esto siempre causó fuertes caídas en el rendimiento, principalmente por reducción en el número de grano, bien representadas por la respuesta de este último con la tasa de crecimiento del cultivo en el período crítico. Un menor tamaño de los destinos reproductivos provocó un efecto de retrocontrol de la actividad de la fuente, reduciendo la eficiencia del uso de los recursos agua y radiación. El rendimiento de ASEM superó al de Florman en todos los casos. Todas las combinaciones de ADC x genotipo en siembra tardía redujeron el rendimiento respecto a su contraparte de la fecha temprana, con excepción de ASEM ADC 70 por ciento Por lo tanto, el uso del genotipo ASEM combinado con buena provisión de agua en el subsuelo permite ampliar la ventana de fechas de siembra manteniendo el rendimiento del cultivo.

Effects of fertility management strategies on phosphorus bioavailability in four West African soils

Low phosphorus (P) in acid sandy soils of the West African Sudano-Sahelian zone is a major limitation to crop growth. To compare treatment effects on total dry matter (TDM) of crops and plant available P (P-Bray and isotopically exchangeable P), field experiments were carried out for 2 years at four sites where annual rainfall ranged from 560 to 850 mm and topsoil pH varied between 4.2 and 5.6. Main treatments were: (i) crop residue (CR) mulch at 500 and 2000 kg ha^-1, (ii) eight different rates and sources of P and (iii) cereal/legume rotations including millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorhum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench], cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). For the two Sahelian sites with large CR-induced differences in TDM, mulching did not modify significantly the soils' buffering capacity for phosphate ions but led to large increases in the intensity factor (C_p) and quantity of directly available soil P (E_1min). In the wetter Sudanian zone lacking effects of CR mulching on TDM mirrored a decline of E_1min with CR. Broadcast application of soluble single superphosphate (SSP) at 13 kg P ha^-1 led to large increases in C_p and quantity of E_1min at all sites which translated in respective TDM increases. The high agronomic efficiency of SSP placement (4 kg P ha^-1) across sites could be explained by consistent increases in the quantity factor which confirms the power of the isotopic exchange method in explaining management effects on crop growth across the region.

Efficient phosphorus application strategies for increased crop production in sub-Saharan West Africa

Comparable data are lacking from the range of environments found in sub-Saharan West Africa to draw more general conclusions about the relative merits of locally available rockphosphate (RockP) in alleviating phosphorus (P) constraints to crop growth. To fill this gap, a multi-factorial field experiment was conducted over 4 years at eight locations in Niger, Burkina Faso and Togo. These ranged in annual rainfall from 510 to 1300 mm. Crops grown were pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) and maize (Zea mays L.) either continuously or in rotation with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). Crops were subjected to six P fertiliser treatments comprising RockP and soluble P at different rates and combined with 0 and 60 kg N ha^-1. For legumes, time trend analyses showed P-induced total dry matter (TDM) increases between 28 and 72% only with groundnut. Similarly, rotation-induced raises in cereal TDM compared to cereal monoculture were only observed with groundnut. For cereals, at the same rate of application, RockP was comparable to single superphosphate (SSP) only at two millet sites with topsoil pH-KCl <4.2 and annual average rainfall >600 mm. Across the eight sites NPK placement at 0.4 g P per hill raised average cereal yields between 26 and 220%. This was confirmed in 119 on-farm trials revealing P placement as a promising strategy to overcome P deficiency as the regionally most growth limiting nutrient constraint to cereals.

Causes of legume-rotation effects in increasing cereal yields across the Sudanian, Sahelian and Guinean zone of West Africa

On-farm experiments and pot trials were conducted on eight West African soils to explore the mechanisms governing the often reported legume rotation-induced cereal growth increases in this region. Crops comprised pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor Moench), maize (Zea mays L.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). In groundnut trials the observed 26 to 85% increases in total dry matter (TDM) of rotation cereals (RC) compared with continuous cereals (CC) in the 4th year appeared to be triggered by site- and crop-specific early season differences in nematode infestation (up to 6-fold lower in RC than in CC), enhanced Nmin and a 7% increase in mycorrhizal (AM) infection. In cowpea trials yield effects on millet and differences in nematode numbers, Nmin and AM were much smaller. Rhizosphere studies indicated effects on pH and acid phosphatase activity as secondary causes for the observed growth differences between RC and CC. In the study region legume-rotation effects on cereals seemed to depend on the capability of the legume to suppress nematodes and to enhance early N and P availability for the subsequent cereal.

Cereal/legume rotation effects on rhizosphere bacterial community structure in West African soils

The increased use of cereal/legume crop rotation has been advocated as a strategy to increase cereal yields of subsistence farmers in West Africa, and is believed to promote changes in the rhizosphere that enhance early plant growth. In this study we investigated the microbial diversity of the rhizoplane from seedlings grown in two soils previously planted to cereal or legume from experimental plots in Gaya, Niger, and Kaboli, Togo. Soils from these legume rotation and continuous cereal plots were placed into containers and sown in a growth chamber with maize (Zea mays L.), millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench.), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) or groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). At 7 and 14 days after sowing, 16S rDNA profiles of the eubacterial and ammoniaoxidizing communities from the rhizoplane and bulk soil were generated using denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE). Community profiles were subjected to peak fitting analyses to quantify the DNA band position and intensities, after which these data were compared using correspondence and principal components analysis. The data showed that cropping system had a highly significant effect on community structure (p <0.005), irrespective of plant species or sampling time. Continuous cereal-soil grown plants had highly similar rhizoplane communities across crop species and sites, whereas communities from the rotation soil showed greater variability and clustered with respect to plant species. Analyses of the ammonia-oxidizing communities provided no evidence of any effects of plant species or management history on ammonia oxidizers in soil from Kaboli, but there were large shifts with respect to this group of bacteria in soils from Gaya. The results of these analyses show that crop rotation can cause significant shifts in rhizosphere bacterial communities.

Crop yield reduction in the tropics under climate change: Processes and uncertainties

Many modelling studies examine the impacts of climate change on crop yield, but few explore either the underlying bio-physical processes, or the uncertainty inherent in the parameterisation of crop growth and development. We used a perturbed-parameter crop modelling method together with a regional climate model (PRECIS) driven by the 2071-2100 SRES A2 emissions scenario in order to examine processes and uncertainties in yield simulation. Crop simulations used the groundnut (i.e. peanut; Arachis hypogaea L.) version of the General Large-Area Model for annual crops (GLAM). Two sets of GLAM simulations were carried out: control simulations and fixed-duration simulations, where the impact of mean temperature on crop development rate was removed. Model results were compared to sensitivity tests using two other crop models of differing levels of complexity: CROPGRO, and the groundnut model of Hammer et al. [Hammer, G.L., Sinclair, T.R., Boote, K.J., Wright, G.C., Meinke, H., and Bell, M.J., 1995, A peanut simulation model: I. Model development and testing. Agron. J. 87, 1085-1093]. GLAM simulations were particularly sensitive to two processes. First, elevated vapour pressure deficit (VPD) consistently reduced yield. The same result was seen in some simulations using both other crop models. Second, GLAM crop duration was longer, and yield greater, when the optimal temperature for the rate of development was exceeded. Yield increases were also seen in one other crop model. Overall, the models differed in their response to super-optimal temperatures, and that difference increased with mean temperature; percentage changes in yield between current and future climates were as diverse as -50% and over +30% for the same input data. The first process has been observed in many crop experiments, whilst the second has not. Thus, we conclude that there is a need for: (i) more process-based modelling studies of the impact of VPD on assimilation, and (ii) more experimental studies at super-optimal temperatures. Using the GLAM results, central values and uncertainty ranges were projected for mean 2071-2100 crop yields in India. In the fixed-duration simulations, ensemble mean yields mostly rose by 10-30%. The full ensemble range was greater than this mean change (20-60% over most of India). In the control simulations, yield stimulation by elevated CO2 was more than offset by other processes-principally accelerated crop development rates at elevated, but sub-optimal, mean temperatures. Hence, the quantification of uncertainty can facilitate relatively robust indications of the likely sign of crop yield changes in future climates. (C) 2007 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Probabilistic simulations of crop yield over western India using the DEMETER seasonal hindcast ensembles

Process-based integrated modelling of weather and crop yield over large areas is becoming an important research topic. The production of the DEMETER ensemble hindcasts of weather allows this work to be carried out in a probabilistic framework. In this study, ensembles of crop yield (groundnut, Arachis hypogaea L.) were produced for 10 2.5 degrees x 2.5 degrees grid cells in western India using the DEMETER ensembles and the general large-area model (GLAM) for annual crops. Four key issues are addressed by this study. First, crop model calibration methods for use with weather ensemble data are assessed. Calibration using yield ensembles was more successful than calibration using reanalysis data (the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts 40-yr reanalysis, ERA40). Secondly, the potential for probabilistic forecasting of crop failure is examined. The hindcasts show skill in the prediction of crop failure, with more severe failures being more predictable. Thirdly, the use of yield ensemble means to predict interannual variability in crop yield is examined and their skill assessed relative to baseline simulations using ERA40. The accuracy of multi-model yield ensemble means is equal to or greater than the accuracy using ERA40. Fourthly, the impact of two key uncertainties, sowing window and spatial scale, is briefly examined. The impact of uncertainty in the sowing window is greater with ERA40 than with the multi-model yield ensemble mean. Subgrid heterogeneity affects model accuracy: where correlations are low on the grid scale, they may be significantly positive on the subgrid scale. The implications of the results of this study for yield forecasting on seasonal time-scales are as follows. (i) There is the potential for probabilistic forecasting of crop failure (defined by a threshold yield value); forecasting of yield terciles shows less potential. (ii) Any improvement in the skill of climate models has the potential to translate into improved deterministic yield prediction. (iii) Whilst model input uncertainties are important, uncertainty in the sowing window may not require specific modelling. The implications of the results of this study for yield forecasting on multidecadal (climate change) time-scales are as follows. (i) The skill in the ensemble mean suggests that the perturbation, within uncertainty bounds, of crop and climate parameters, could potentially average out some of the errors associated with mean yield prediction. (ii) For a given technology trend, decadal fluctuations in the yield-gap parameter used by GLAM may be relatively small, implying some predictability on those time-scales.

Quantifying uncertainty in the simulation of crop-climate processes

The impacts of climate change on crop productivity are often assessed using simulations from a numerical climate model as an input to a crop simulation model. The precision of these predictions reflects the uncertainty in both models. We examined how uncertainty in a climate (HadAM3) and crop General Large-Area Model (GLAM) for annual crops model affects the mean and standard deviation of crop yield simulations in present and doubled carbon dioxide (CO2) climates by perturbation of parameters in each model. The climate sensitivity parameter (λ, the equilibrium response of global mean surface temperature to doubled CO2) was used to define the control climate. Observed 1966–1989 mean yields of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) in India were simulated well by the crop model using the control climate and climates with values of λ near the control value. The simulations were used to measure the contribution to uncertainty of key crop and climate model parameters. The standard deviation of yield was more affected by perturbation of climate parameters than crop model parameters in both the present-day and doubled CO2 climates. Climate uncertainty was higher in the doubled CO2 climate than in the present-day climate. Crop transpiration efficiency was key to crop model uncertainty in both present-day and doubled CO2 climates. The response of crop development to mean temperature contributed little uncertainty in the present-day simulations but was among the largest contributors under doubled CO2. The ensemble methods used here to quantify physical and biological uncertainty offer a method to improve model estimates of the impacts of climate change.

Use of a crop model ensemble to quantify CO2 stimulation of water-stressed and well-watered crops

Increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2) will benefit the yield of most crops. Two free air CO2 enrichment (FACE) meta-analyses have shown increases in yield of between 0 and 73% for C3 crops. Despite this large range, few crop modelling studies quantify the uncertainty inherent in the parameterisation of crop growth and development. We present a novel perturbed-parameter method of crop model simulation, which uses some constraints from observations, that does this. The model used is the groundnut (i.e. peanut; Arachis hypogaea L.) version of the general large-area model for annual crops (GLAM). The conclusions are of relevance to C3 crops in general. The increases in yield simulated by GLAM for doubled CO2 were between 16 and 62%. The difference in mean percentage increase between well-watered and water-stressed simulations was 6.8. These results were compared to FACE and controlled environment studies, and to sensitivity tests on two other crop models of differing levels of complexity: CROPGRO, and the groundnut model of Hammer et al. [Hammer, G.L., Sinclair, T.R., Boote, K.J., Wright, G.C., Meinke, H., Bell, M.J., 1995. A peanut simulation model. I. Model development and testing. Agron. J. 87, 1085-1093]. The relationship between CO2 and water stress in the experiments and in the models was examined. From a physiological perspective, water-stressed crops are expected to show greater CO2 stimulation than well-watered crops. This expectation has been cited in literature. However, this result is not seen consistently in either the FACE studies or in the crop models. In contrast, leaf-level models of assimilation do consistently show this result. An analysis of the evidence from these models and from the data suggests that scale (canopy versus leaf), model calibration, and model complexity are factors in determining the sign and magnitude of the interaction between CO2 and water stress. We conclude from our study that the statement that 'water-stressed crops show greater CO2 stimulation than well-watered crops' cannot be held to be universally true. We also conclude, preliminarily, that the relationship between water stress and assimilation varies with scale. Accordingly, we provide some suggestions on how studies of a similar nature, using crop models of a range of complexity, could contribute further to understanding the roles of model calibration, model complexity and scale. (C) 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Adaptation of crops to climate change through genotypic responses to mean and extreme temperatures

The importance of temperature in the determination of the yield of an annual crop (groundnut; Arachis hypogaea L. in India) was assessed. Simulations from a regional climate model (PRECIS) were used with a crop model (GLAM) to examine crop growth under simulated current (1961-1990) and future (2071-2100) climates. Two processes were examined: the response of crop duration to mean temperature and the response of seed-set to extremes of temperature. The relative importance of, and interaction between, these two processes was examined for a number of genotypic characteristics, which were represented by using different values of crop model parameters derived from experiments. The impact of mean and extreme temperatures varied geographically, and depended upon the simulated genotypic properties. High temperature stress was not a major determinant of simulated yields in the current climate, but affected the mean and variability of yield under climate change in two regions which had contrasting statistics of daily maximum temperature. Changes in mean temperature had a similar impact on mean yield to that of high temperature stress in some locations and its effects were more widespread. Where the optimal temperature for development was exceeded, the resulting increase in duration in some simulations fully mitigated the negative impacts of extreme temperatures when sufficient water was available for the extended growing period. For some simulations the reduction in mean yield between the current and future climates was as large as 70%, indicating the importance of genotypic adaptation to changes in both means and extremes of temperature under climate change. (c) 2006 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.