R&D Costs and Returns to New Drug Development: A Review of the Evidence

© 2012 by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved.This article reviews the extensive literature on R&D costs and returns. The first section focuses on R&D costs and the various factors that have affected the trends in real R&D costs over time. The second section considers economic studies on the distribution of returns in pharmaceuticals for different cohorts of new drug introductions. It also reviews the use of these studies to analyze the impact of policy actions on R&D costs and returns. The final section concludes and discusses open questions for further research.

Different stimuli, different spatial codes: a visual map and an auditory rate code for oculomotor space in the primate superior colliculus.

Maps are a mainstay of visual, somatosensory, and motor coding in many species. However, auditory maps of space have not been reported in the primate brain. Instead, recent studies have suggested that sound location may be encoded via broadly responsive neurons whose firing rates vary roughly proportionately with sound azimuth. Within frontal space, maps and such rate codes involve different response patterns at the level of individual neurons. Maps consist of neurons exhibiting circumscribed receptive fields, whereas rate codes involve open-ended response patterns that peak in the periphery. This coding format discrepancy therefore poses a potential problem for brain regions responsible for representing both visual and auditory information. Here, we investigated the coding of auditory space in the primate superior colliculus(SC), a structure known to contain visual and oculomotor maps for guiding saccades. We report that, for visual stimuli, neurons showed circumscribed receptive fields consistent with a map, but for auditory stimuli, they had open-ended response patterns consistent with a rate or level-of-activity code for location. The discrepant response patterns were not segregated into different neural populations but occurred in the same neurons. We show that a read-out algorithm in which the site and level of SC activity both contribute to the computation of stimulus location is successful at evaluating the discrepant visual and auditory codes, and can account for subtle but systematic differences in the accuracy of auditory compared to visual saccades. This suggests that a given population of neurons can use different codes to support appropriate multimodal behavior.

R Markdown: Integrating A Reproducible Analysis Tool into Introductory Statistics

Nolan and Temple Lang argue that “the ability to express statistical computations is an es- sential skill.” A key related capacity is the ability to conduct and present data analysis in a way that another person can understand and replicate. The copy-and-paste workflow that is an artifact of antiquated user-interface design makes reproducibility of statistical analysis more difficult, especially as data become increasingly complex and statistical methods become increasingly sophisticated. R Markdown is a new technology that makes creating fully-reproducible statistical analysis simple and painless. It provides a solution suitable not only for cutting edge research, but also for use in an introductory statistics course. We present experiential and statistical evidence that R Markdown can be used effectively in introductory statistics courses, and discuss its role in the rapidly-changing world of statistical computation.

Seroprotection against tetanus in patients of an an emergency department in Belgium and evaluation of a bedside immunotest (Tetanos Quick Stick R).

info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

Seroprotection against tetanus in patients of an an emergency department in Belgium and evaluation of a bedside immunotest (Tetanos Quick Stick R). A prospective observational study

info:eu-repo/semantics/published

Seroprotection against tetanus in patients présenting to an emergency department in Belgium and evaluation of a bedside immunotest (Tetanos Quick Stick R): A prospective observational study

info:eu-repo/semantics/published

The HITRAN 2008 molecular spectroscopic database

This paper describes the status of the 2008 edition of the HITRAN molecular spectroscopic database. The new edition is the first official public release since the 2004 edition, although a number of crucial updates had been made available online since 2004. The HITRAN compilation consists of several components that serve as input for radiative-transfer calculation codes: individual line parameters for the microwave through visible spectra of molecules in the gas phase; absorption cross-sections for molecules having dense spectral features, i.e. spectra in which the individual lines are not resolved; individual line parameters and absorption cross-sections for bands in the ultraviolet; refractive indices of aerosols, tables and files of general properties associated with the database; and database management software. The line-by-line portion of the database contains spectroscopic parameters for 42 molecules including many of their isotopologues. © 2009 Elsevier Ltd.

The HITRAN molecular spectroscopic database: Edition of 2000 including updates through 2001

This paper describes the status circa 2001, of the HITRAN compilation that comprises the public edition available through 2001. The HITRAN compilation consists of several components useful for radiative transfer calculation codes: high-resolution spectroscopic parameters of molecules in the gas phase, absorption cross-sections for molecules with very dense spectral features, aerosol refractive indices, ultraviolet line-by-line parameters and absorption cross-sections, and associated database management software. The line-by-line portion of the database contains spectroscopic parameters for 38 molecules and their isotopologues and isotopomers suitable for calculating atmospheric transmission and radiance properties. Many more molecular species are presented in the infrared cross-section data than in the previous edition, especially the chlorofluorocarbons and their replacement gases. There is now sufficient representation so that quasi-quantitative simulations can be obtained with the standard radiance codes. In addition to the description and justification of new or modified data that have been incorporated since the last edition of HITRAN (1996), future modifications are indicated for cases considered to have a significant impact on remote-sensing experiments. © 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Análisis de la Corporación J.R Lindley S.A. : caso Inca Kola

Inca Kola es una bebida gasificada del Perú y elaborada por la Corporación Lindley, que ha conservado el liderazgo en el mercado peruano desde su creación, a pesar del ingreso de bebidas internacionales y de bebidas que tienen un menor precio. Desde su creación, la corporación se enfocó en vincular la bebida con la identidad peruana; estrategia que ha sido efectiva y se pueden comprobar por el liderazgo que presenta en el mercado. En los noventa, la corporación Lindley tuvo que enfrentar un escenario turbulento debido al ingreso de Coca Cola y Pepsi, sin embargo, estas no desplazaron a Inca Kola a pesar del poder de marketing que cuentan. En este sentido, el objetivo del presente trabajo es estudiar cómo la Corporación Lindley mantiene su bebida "Inca Kola" como una especialidad en el Perú, por medio de la metodología de las tres vías propuesto por Joskow. Los resultados indican que existen leyes que salvaguardan la marca Inca Kola, tanto en el ámbito nacional como internacional y que gracias a la alianza entre la corporación Lindley y Coca Cola Company, se puso fin a la competencia, aumentando las barreras de ingreso en el sector de bebidas, y como resultado la corporación pudo enfocar sus esfuerzos en seguir vinculando la bebida con la cultura peruana y modernizar sus diferentes plantas de envasado. Las conclusiones más resaltantes indican que la corporación Lindley se apalancó en el Entorno Institucional informal para captar las preferencia de los peruanos, en otras palabras vinculó una bebida aprovechando las características que tienen los consumidores peruano, los cuales tienen lazos muy fuertes con productos que asocian con la identidad nacional. En la vía de la Moderna Organización Industrial se observa que la bebida sigue liderando las ventas con un precio mayor que los competidores, indicando que la corporación tiene una estrategia de diferenciación. Respecto a la vía de la estructura de gobernaza, la corporación pudo alinear sus transacciones con los proveedores de insumos y distribuidores para garantizar la calidad, precio y a asegurando su activo especifico más importante, la marca "Inca Kola". Estas características son propias de las Especialidades.

Preliminary studies on the effect of the increased biodiversity on the population dynamics of Caliroa cerasi L. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), and its natural enemy Trichogramma minutum R. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in a sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard in Virch (Southern Patagonia Argentina)

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Una propuesta para predecir el factor de erosividad R para el centro y norte de la Argentina

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Efecto del 2,4 - DP sobre el tamaño de frutos de kiwi, Actinidia deliciosa (Chevalier) - C.F. Liang - A.R.Ferguson

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Preliminary studies on the effect of the increased biodiversity on the population dynamics of Caliroa cerasi L. (Hymenoptera: Tenthredinidae), and its natural enemy Trichogramma minutum R. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) in a sweet cherry (Prunus avium L.) orchard in Virch (Southern Patagonia Argentina)

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Introducción a la Estadística con R

Generalmente, los estudiantes de bachillerato y universitarios tienen dificultades para comprender los conceptos más elementales de probabilidad y estadística. La presentación de conceptos abstractos de una forma visual y dinámica puede ayudar a comprenderlos mejor. La simulación de experimentos aleatorios ayudará a conseguirlo. Presentamos a continuación algunas de las actividades preparadas para ello.