Repeated sprinting on natural grass impairs vertical stiffness but does not alter plantar loading in soccer players.

This study aimed to determine changes in spring-mass model (SMM) characteristics, plantar pressures, and muscle activity induced by the repetition of sprints in soccer-specific conditions; i.e., on natural grass with soccer shoes. Thirteen soccer players performed 6 × 20 m sprints interspersed with 20 s of passive recovery. Plantar pressure distribution was recorded via an insole pressure recorder device divided into nine areas for analysis. Stride temporal parameters allowed to estimate SMM characteristics. Surface electromyographic activity was monitored for vastus lateralis, rectus femoris, and biceps femoris muscles. Sprint time, contact time, and total stride duration lengthened from the first to the last repetition (+6.7, +12.9, and +9.3%; all P < 0.05), while flight time, swing time, and stride length remained constant. Stride frequency decrease across repetitions approached significance (-6.8%; P = 0.07). No main effect of the sprint number or any significant interaction between sprint number and foot region was found for maximal force, mean force, peak pressure and mean pressure (all P > 0.05). Center of mass vertical displacement increased (P < 0.01) with time, together with unchanged (both P > 0.05) peak vertical force and leg compression. Vertical stiffness decreased (-15.9%; P < 0.05) across trials, whereas leg stiffness changes were not significant (-5.9%; P > 0.05). Changes in root mean square activity of the three tested muscles over sprint repetitions were not significant. Although repeated sprinting on natural grass with players wearing soccer boots impairs their leg-spring behavior (vertical stiffness), there is no substantial concomitant alterations in muscle activation levels or plantar pressure patterns.

Self-sustained spatiotemporal oscillations induced by membrane-bulk coupling

We propose a novel mechanism leading to spatiotemporal oscillations in extended systems that does not rely on local bulk instabilities. Instead, oscillations arise from the interaction of two subsystems of different spatial dimensionality. Specifically, we show that coupling a passive diffusive bulk of dimension d with an excitable membrane of dimension d-1 produces a self-sustained oscillatory behavior. An analytical explanation of the phenomenon is provided for d=1. Moreover, in-phase and antiphase synchronization of oscillations are found numerically in one and two dimensions. This novel dynamic instability could be used by biological systems such as cells, where the dynamics on the cellular membrane is necessarily different from that of the cytoplasmic bulk.

Diffusion in spatially and temporarily inhomogeneous media: Effects of turbulent mixing

We consider diffusion of a passive substance C in a phase-separating nonmiscible binary alloy under turbulent mixing. The substance is assumed to have different diffusion coefficients in the pure phases A and B, leading to a spatially and temporarily dependent diffusion ¿coefficient¿ in the diffusion equation plus convective term. In this paper we consider especially the effects of a turbulent flow field coupled to both the Cahn-Hilliard type evolution equation of the medium and the diffusion equation (both, therefore, supplemented by a convective term). It is shown that the formerly observed prolonged anomalous diffusion [H. Lehr, F. Sagués, and J.M. Sancho, Phys. Rev. E 54, 5028 (1996)] is no longer seen if a flow of sufficient intensity is supplied.

Diffusion in spatially and temporarily inhomogeneous media

In this paper we consider diffusion of a passive substance C in a temporarily and spatially inhomogeneous two-dimensional medium. As a realization for the latter we choose a phase-separating medium consisting of two substances A and B, whose dynamics is determined by the Cahn-Hilliard equation. Assuming different diffusion coefficients of C in A and B, we find that the variance of the distribution function of the said substance grows less than linearly in time. We derive a simple identity for the variance using a probabilistic ansatz and are then able to identify the interface between A and B as the main cause for this nonlinear dependence. We argue that, finally, for very large times the here temporarily dependent diffusion "constant" goes like t-1/3 to a constant asymptotic value D¿. The latter is calculated approximately by employing the effective-medium approximation and by fitting the simulation data to the said time dependence.

Inertial effects on reactive particles advected by turbulence

We study the problem of the advection of passive particles with inertia in a two-dimensional, synthetic, and stationary turbulent flow. The asymptotic analytical result and numerical simulations show the importance of inertial bias in collecting the particles preferentially in certain regions of the flow, depending on their density relative to that of the flow. We also study how these aggregates are affected when a simple chemical reaction mechanism is introduced through a Eulerian scheme. We find that inertia can be responsible for maintaining a stationary concentration pattern even under nonfavorable reactive conditions or destroying it under favorable ones.

Neurological Prognostication after Cardiac Arrest and Therapeutic Hypothermia: a Prospective Validation Study

Introduction: Clinical examination and electroencephalography study (EEG) have been recommended to predict functional recovery in comatose survivors of cardiac arrest (CA), however their prognostic value in patients treated with induced hypothermia (IH) has not been evaluated. Hypothesis: We aimed to validate the prognostic ability of clinical examination and EEG in predicting outcome of patients with coma after CA treated with IH and sought to derive a score with high predictive value for poor functional outcome in this setting. Methods: We prospectively studied 100 consecutive comatose survivors of CA treated with IH. Repeated neurological examination and EEG were performed early after passive rewarming and off sedation. Mortality was assessed at hospital discharge, and functional outcome at 3 to 6 months with Cerebral Performance Categories (CPC), and was dichotomized as good (CPC 1-2) vs. poor (CPC 3-5). Independent predictors of outcome were identified by multivariable logistic regression and used to assess the prognostic value of a Reproducible Electro-clinical Prognosticators of Outcome Score (REPOS). Results: Patients (20/100) with good outcome had all a reactive EEG background. Incomplete recovery of brainstem reflexes, myoclonus, time to return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) > 25 min, and unreactive EEG background were all independent predictors of death and severe disability, and were added to construct the REPOS. Using a cut-off of 0 or 1 variables for good vs. 2 to 4 for poor outcome, the REPOS had a positive predictive value of 1.00 (95% CI: 0.92-1.00), a negative predictive value of 0.43 (95% CI: 0.29-0.58) and an accuracy of 0.81 for poor functional recovery at 3 to 6 months. Conclusions: In comatose survivors of CA treated with IH, a prognostic score, including clinical and EEG examination, was highly predictive of death and poor functional outcome at 3 to 6 months. Lack of EEG background reactivity strongly predicted poor neurological recovery after CA. Our findings show that clinical and electrophysiological studies are effective in predicting long-term outcome of comatose survivors after CA and IH, and suggest that EEG improves early prognostic assessment in the setting of therapeutic cooling.

Langevin approach to generate synthetic turbulent flows

We present an analytical scheme, easily implemented numerically, to generate synthetic Gaussian turbulent flows by using a linear Langevin equation, where the noise term acts as a stochastic stirring force. The characteristic parameters of the velocity field are well introduced, in particular the kinematic viscosity and the spectrum of energy. As an application, the diffusion of a passive scalar is studied for two different energy spectra. Numerical results are compared favorably with analytical calculations.

Early dyadic patterns of mother-infant interactions and outcomes of prematurity at 18 months.

OBJECTIVE: With the increased survival of very preterm infants, there is a growing concern for their developmental and socioemotional outcomes. The quality of the early mother-infant relationship has been noted as 1 of the factors that may exacerbate or soften the potentially adverse impact of preterm birth, particularly concerning the infant's later competencies and development. The first purpose of the study was to identify at 6 months of corrected age whether there were specific dyadic mother-infant patterns of interaction in preterm as compared with term mother-infant dyads. The second purpose was to examine the potential impact of these dyadic patterns on the infant's behavioral and developmental outcomes at 18 months of corrected age. METHODS: During a 12-month period (January-December 1998), all preterm infants who were <34 weeks of gestational age and hospitalized at the NICU of the Lausanne University Hospital were considered for inclusion in this longitudinal prospective follow-up study. Control healthy term infants were recruited during the same period from the maternity ward of our hospital. Mother-infant dyads with preterm infants (n = 47) and term infants (n = 25) were assessed at 6 months of corrected age during a mother-infant play interaction and coded according to the Care Index. This instrument evaluates the mother's interactional behavior according to 3 scales (sensitivity, control, and unresponsiveness) and the child's interactional behavior according to 4 scales (cooperation, compliance, difficult, and passivity). At 18 months, behavioral outcomes of the children were assessed on the basis of a semistructured interview of the mother, the Symptom Check List. The Symptom Check List explores 4 groups of behavioral symptoms: sleeping problems, eating problems, psychosomatic symptoms, and behavioral and emotional disorders. At the same age, developmental outcomes were evaluated using the Griffiths Developmental Scales. Five areas were evaluated: locomotor, personal-social, hearing and speech, eye-hand coordination, and performance. RESULTS: Among the possible dyadic patterns of interaction, 2 patterns emerge recurrently in mother-infant preterm dyads: a "cooperative pattern" with a sensitive mother and a cooperative-responsive infant (28%) and a "controlling pattern" with a controlling mother and a compulsive-compliant infant (28%). The remaining 44% form a heterogeneous group that gathers all of the other preterm dyads and is composed of 1 sensitive mother-passive infant; 10 controlling mothers with a cooperative, difficult, or passive infant; and 10 unresponsive mothers with a cooperative, difficult, or passive infant. Among the term control subjects, 68% of the dyads are categorized as cooperative pattern dyads, 12% as controlling pattern dyads, and the 20% remaining as heterogeneous dyads. At 18 months, preterm infants of cooperative pattern dyads have similar outcomes as the term control infants. Preterm infants of controlling pattern dyads have significantly fewer positive outcomes as compared with preterm infants of cooperative pattern dyads, as well as compared with term control infants. They display significantly more behavioral symptoms than term infants, including more eating problems than term infants as well as infants from cooperative preterm dyads. Infants of the controlling preterm dyads do not differ significantly for the total development quotient but have worse personal-social development than term infants and worse hearing-speech development than infants from cooperative preterm dyads. The preterm infants of the heterogeneous group have outcomes that can be considered as intermediate with no significant differences compared with preterm infants from the cooperative pattern or the controlling pattern dyads. CONCLUSION: Among mother-preterm infant dyads, we identified 2 specific patterns of interaction that could play either a protective (cooperative pattern) or a risk-precipitating (controlling pattern) role on developmental and behavioral outcome, independent of perinatal risk factors and of the family's socioeconomic background. The controlling pattern is much more prevalent among preterm than term dyads and is related to a less favorable infant outcome. However, the cooperative pattern still represents almost 30% of the preterm dyads, with infants' outcome comparable to the ones of term infants. These results point out the impact of the quality of mother-infant relationship on the infant's outcome. The most important clinical implication should be to support a healthy parent-infant relationship already in the NICU but also in the first months of the infant's life. Early individualized family-based interventions during neonatal hospitalization and transition to home have been shown to reduce maternal stress and depression and increase maternal self-esteem and to improve positive early parent-preterm infant interactions.

Multidimensionnalité des violences envers les femmes. La Suisse en regard des États-Unis: pertinence et validité d'une comparaison

Summary : International comparisons in the area of victimization, particularly in the field of violence against women, are fraught with methodological problems that previous research has not systematically addressed, and whose answer does not seem to be agreed up~n. For obvious logistic and financial reasons, international studies on violence against women (i.e. studies that administer the same instrument in different countries). are seldom; therefore, researchers are bound to resort to secondary comparisons. Many studies simply juxtapose their results to the ones of previous wòrk or to findings obtained in different contexts, in order to offer an allegedly comparative perspective to their conclusions. If, most of the time, researchers indicate the methodological limitations of a direct comparison, it is not rare that these do not result in concrete methodological controls. Yet, many studies have shown the influence of surveys methodological parameters on findings, listing recommendations fora «best practice» of research. Although, over the past decades, violence against women surveys have become more and more similar -tending towards a sort of uniformization that could be interpreted as a passive consensus -these instruments retain more or less subtle differences that are still susceptible to influence the validity of a comparison. Yet, only a small number of studies have directly worked on the comparability of violence against women data, striving to control the methodological parameters of the surveys in order to guarantee the validity of their comparisons. The goal of this work is to compare data from two national surveys on violence against women: the Swiss component of the International Violence Against Women Survey [CH-IVAWS] and the National Violence Against Women Survey [NVAWS] administered in the United States. The choice of these studies certainly ensues from the author's affiliations; however, it is far from being trivial. Indeed, the criminological field currently endows American and Anglo-Saxon literature with a predominant space, compelling researchers from other countries to almost do the splits to interpret their results in the light of previous work or to develop effective interventions in their own context. Turning to hypotheses or concepts developed in a specific framework inevitably raises the issue of their applicability to another context, i.e. the Swiss context, if not at least European. This problematic then takes on an interest that goes beyond the particular topic of violence against women, adding to its relevance. This work articulates around three axes. First, it shows the way survey characteristics influence estimates. The comparability of the nature of the CH-IVAWS and NVAWS, their sampling design and the characteristics of their administration are discussed. The definitions used, the operationalization of variables based on comparable items, the control of reference periods, as well as the nature of the victim-offender relationship are included among controlled factors. This study establishes content validity within and across studies, presenting a systematic process destined to maximize the comparability of secondary data. Implications of the process are illustrated with the successive presentation of comparable and non-comparable operationalizations of computed variables. Measuring violence against. women in Switzerland and the United-States, this work compares the prevalence of different forms (threats, physical violence and sexual violence) and types of violence (partner and nonpartner violence). Second, it endeavors to analyze concepts of multivictimization (i.e. experiencing different forms of victimization), repeat victimization (i.e. experiencing the same form of violence more than once), and revictimization (i.e. the link between childhood and adulthood victimization) in a comparative -and comparable -approach. Third, aiming at understanding why partner violence appears higher in the United States, while victims of nonpartners are more frequent in Switzerland, as well as in other European countries, different victimization correlates are examined. This research contributes to a better understanding of the relevance of controlling methodological parameters in comparisons across studies, as it illustrates, systematically, the imposed controls and their implications on quantitative data. Moreover, it details how ignoring these parameters might lead to erroneous conclusions, statistically as well as theoretically. The conclusion of the study puts into a wider perspective the discussion of differences and similarities of violence against women in Switzerland and the United States, and integrates recommendations as to the relevance and validity of international comparisons, whatever the'field they are conducted in. Résumé: Les comparaisons internationales dans le domaine de la victimisation, et plus particulièrement en ce qui concerne les violences envers les femmes, se caractérisent par des problèmes méthodologiques que les recherches antérieures n'ont pas systématiquement adressés, et dont la réponse ne semble pas connaître de consensus. Pour des raisons logistiques et financières évidentes, les études internationales sur les violences envers les femmes (c.-à-d. les études utilisant un même instrument dans différents pays) sont rares, aussi les chercheurs sont-ils contraints de se tourner vers des comparaisons secondaires. Beaucoup de recherches juxtaposent alors simplement leurs résultats à ceux de travaux antérieurs ou à des résultats obtenus dans d'autres contextes, afin d'offrir à leurs conclusions une perspective prétendument comparative. Si, le plus souvent, les auteurs indiquent les limites méthodologiques d'une comparaison directe, il est fréquent que ces dernières ne se traduisent pas par des contrôles méthodologiques concrets. Et pourtant, quantité de travaux ont mis en évidence l'influence des paramètres méthodologiques des enquêtes sur les résultats obtenus, érigeant des listes de recommandations pour une «meilleure pratique» de la recherche. Bien que, ces dernières décennies, les sondages sur les violences envers les femmes soient devenus de plus en plus similaires -tendant, vers une certaine uniformisation que l'on peut interpréter comme un consensus passif-, il n'en demeure pas moins que ces instruments possèdent des différences plus ou moins subtiles, mais toujours susceptibles d'influencer la validité d'une comparaison. Pourtant, seules quelques recherches ont directement travaillé sur la comparabilité des données sur les violences envers les femmes, ayant à coeur de contrôler les paramètres méthodologiques des études utilisées afin de garantir la validité de leurs comparaisons. L'objectif de ce travail est la comparaison des données de deux sondages nationaux sur les violences envers les femmes: le composant suisse de l'International Violence Against Women Survey [CHIVAWSj et le National Violence Against Women Survey [NVAWS) administré aux États-Unis. Le choix de ces deux études découle certes des affiliations de l'auteure, cependant il est loin d'être anodin. Le champ criminologique actuel confère, en effet, une place prépondérante à la littérature américaine et anglo-saxonne, contraignant ainsi les chercheurs d'autres pays à un exercice proche du grand écart pour interpréter leurs résultats à la lumière des travaux antérieurs ou développer des interventions efficaces dans leur propre contexte. Le fait de recourir à des hypothèses et des concepts développés dans un cadre spécifique pose inévitablement la question de leur applicabilité à un autre contexte, soit ici le contexte suisse, sinon du moins européen. Cette problématique revêt alors un intérêt qui dépasse la thématique spécifique des violences envers les femmes, ce qui ajoute à sa pertinence. Ce travail s'articule autour de trois axes. Premièrement, il met en évidence la manière dont les caractéristiques d'un sondage influencent les estimations qui en découlent. La comparabilité de la nature du CH-IVAWS et du NVAWS, de leur processus d'échantillonnage et des caractéristiques de leur administration est discutée. Les définitions utilisées, l'opérationnalisation des variables sur la base d'items comparables, le contrôle des périodes de référence, ainsi que la nature de la relation victime-auteur figurent également parmi les facteurs contrôlés. Ce travail établit ainsi la validité de contenu intra- et inter-études, offrant un processus systématique destiné à maximiser la comparabilité des données secondaires. Les implications de cette démarche sont illustrées avec la présentation successive d'opérationnalisations comparables et non-comparables des variables construites. Mesurant les violences envers les femmes en Suisse et aux États-Unis, ce travail compare la prévalence de plusieurs formes (menaces, violences physiques et violences sexuelles) et types de violence (violences partenaires et non-partenaires). 11 s'attache également à analyser les concepts de multivictimisation (c.-à-d. le fait de subir plusieurs formes de victimisation), victimisation répétée (c.-à.-d. le fait de subir plusieurs incidents de même forme) et revictimisation (c.-à-d. le lien entre la victimisation dans l'enfance et à l'âge adulte) dans une approche comparative - et comparable. Dans un troisième temps, cherchant à comprendre pourquoi la violence des partenaires apparaît plus fréquente aux États-Unis, tandis que les victimes de non-partenaires sont plus nombreuses en Suisse, et dans d'autres pays européens, différents facteurs associés à la victimisation sont évalués. Cette recherche participe d'une meilleure compréhension de la pertinence du contrôle des paramètres méthodologiques dans les comparaisons entre études puisqu'elle illustre, pas à pas, les contrôles imposés et leurs effets sur les données quantitatives, et surtout comment l'ignorance de ces paramètres peut conduire à des conclusions erronées, tant statistiquement que théoriquement. La conclusion replace, dans un contexte plus large, la discussion des différences et des similitudes observées quant à la prévalence des violences envers les femmes en Suisse et aux États-Unis, et intègre des recommandations quant à la pertinence et à la validité des comparaisons internationales, cela quel que soit le domaine considéré.

Impact of a smoking ban in hospitality venues on second hand smoke exposure: a comparison of exposure assessment methods

BACKGROUND: In May 2010, Switzerland introduced a heterogeneous smoking ban in the hospitality sector. While the law leaves room for exceptions in some cantons, it is comprehensive in others. This longitudinal study uses different measurement methods to examine airborne nicotine levels in hospitality venues and the level of personal exposure of non-smoking hospitality workers before and after implementation of the law. METHODS: Personal exposure to second hand smoke (SHS) was measured by three different methods. We compared a passive sampler called MoNIC (Monitor of NICotine) badge, to salivary cotinine and nicotine concentration as well as questionnaire data. Badges allowed the number of passively smoked cigarettes to be estimated. They were placed at the venues as well as distributed to the participants for personal measurements. To assess personal exposure at work, a time-weighted average of the workplace badge measurements was calculated. RESULTS: Prior to the ban, smoke-exposed hospitality venues yielded a mean badge value of 4.48 (95%-CI: 3.7 to 5.25; n = 214) cigarette equivalents/day. At follow-up, measurements in venues that had implemented a smoking ban significantly declined to an average of 0.31 (0.17 to 0.45; n = 37) (p = 0.001). Personal badge measurements also significantly decreased from an average of 2.18 (1.31-3.05 n = 53) to 0.25 (0.13-0.36; n = 41) (p = 0.001). Spearman rank correlations between badge exposure measures and salivary measures were small to moderate (0.3 at maximum). CONCLUSIONS: Nicotine levels significantly decreased in all types of hospitality venues after implementation of the smoking ban. In-depth analyses demonstrated that a time-weighted average of the workplace badge measurements represented typical personal SHS exposure at work more reliably than personal exposure measures such as salivary cotinine and nicotine.

Evolution of the Pelagonian carbonate platform complex and the adjacent oceanic realm in response to plate tectonic forcing (Late Triassic and Jurassic), Evvoia, Greece

The Late Triassic and Jurassic platform and the oceanic complexes in Evvoia, Greece, share a complementary plate-tectonic evolution. Shallow marine carbonate deposition responded to changing rates of subsidence and uplift, whilst the adjacent ocean underwent spreading, and then convergence, collision and finally obduction over the platform complex. Late Triassic ocean spreading correlated with platform subsidence and the formation of a long-persisting peritidal passive-margin platform. Incipient drowning occurred from the Sinemurian to the late Middle Jurassic. This subsidence correlated with intra-oceanic subduction and plate convergence that led to supra-subduction calc-alkaline magmatism and the formation of a primitive volcanic arc. During the Middle Jurassic, plate collision caused arc uplift above the carbonate compensation depth (CCD) in the oceanic realm, and related thrust-faulting, on the platform, led to sub-aerial exposures. Patch-reefs developed there during the Late Oxfordian to Kimmeridgian. Advanced oceanic nappe-loading caused platform drowning below the CCD during the Tithonian, which is documented by intercalations of reefal turbidites with non-carbonate radiolarites. Radiolarites and bypass-turbidites, consisting of siliciclastic greywacke, terminate the platform succession beneath the emplaced oceanic nappe during late Tithonian to Valanginian time.

En torno a los efectos de la edad en el aprendizaje escolar de una lengua extrangera

The purpose of this article is to treat a currently much debated issue, the effects of age on second language learning. To do so, we contrast data collected by our research team from over one thousand seven hundred young and adult learners with four popular beliefs or generalizations, which, while deeply rooted in this society, are not always corroborated by our data.Two of these generalizations about Second Language Acquisition (languages spoken in the social context) seem to be widely accepted: a) older children, adolescents and adults are quicker and more efficient at the first stages of learning than are younger learners; b) in a natural context children with an early start are more liable to attain higher levels of proficiency. However, in the context of Foreign Language Acquisition, the context in which we collect the data, this second generalization is difficult to verify due to the low number of instructional hours (a maximum of some 800 hours) and the lower levels of language exposure time provided. The design of our research project has allowed us to study differences observed with respect to the age of onset (ranging from 2 to 18+), but in this article we focus on students who began English instruction at the age of 8 (LOGSE Educational System) and those who began at the age of 11 (EGB). We have collected data from both groups after a period of 200 (Time 1) and 416 instructional hours (Time 2), and we are currently collecting data after a period of 726 instructional hours (Time 3). We have designed and administered a variety of tests: tests on English production and reception, both oral and written, and within both academic and communicative oriented approaches, on the learners' L1 (Spanish and Catalan), as well as a questionnaire eliciting personal and sociolinguistic information. The questions we address and the relevant empirical evidence are as follows: 1. "For young children, learning languages is a game. They enjoy it more than adults."Our data demonstrate that the situation is not quite so. Firstly, both at the levels of Primary and Secondary education (ranging from 70.5% in 11-year-olds to 89% in 14-year-olds) students have a positive attitude towards learning English. Secondly, there is a difference between the two groups with respect to the factors they cite as responsible for their motivation to learn English: the younger students cite intrinsic factors, such as the games they play, the methodology used and the teacher, whereas the older students cite extrinsic factors, such as the role of their knowledge of English in the achievement of their future professional goals. 2 ."Young children have more resources to learn languages." Here our data suggest just the opposite. The ability to employ learning strategies (actions or steps used) increases with age. Older learners' strategies are more varied and cognitively more complex. In contrast, younger learners depend more on their interlocutor and external resources and therefore have a lower level of autonomy in their learning. 3. "Young children don't talk much but understand a lot"This third generalization does seem to be confirmed, at least to a certain extent, by our data in relation to the analysis of differences due to the age factor and productive use of the target language. As seen above, the comparably slower progress of the younger learners is confirmed. Our analysis of interpersonal receptive abilities demonstrates as well the advantage of the older learners. Nevertheless, with respect to passive receptive activities (for example, simple recognition of words or sentences) no great differences are observed. Statistical analyses suggest that in this test, in contrast to the others analyzed, the dominance of the subjects' L1s (reflecting a cognitive capacity that grows with age) has no significant influence on the learning process. 4. "The sooner they begin, the better their results will be in written language"This is not either completely confirmed in our research. First of all, we perceive that certain compensatory strategies disappear only with age, but not with the number of instructional hours. Secondly, given an identical number of instructional hours, the older subjects obtain better results. With respect to our analysis of data from subjects of the same age (12 years old) but with a different number of instructional hours (200 and 416 respectively, as they began at the ages of 11 and 8), we observe that those who began earlier excel only in the area of lexical fluency. In conclusion, the superior rate of older learners appears to be due to their higher level of cognitive development, a factor which allows them to benefit more from formal or explicit instruction in the school context. Younger learners, however, do not benefit from the quantity and quality of linguistic exposure typical of a natural acquisition context in which they would be allowed to make use of implicit learning abilities. It seems clear, then, that the initiative in this country to begin foreign language instruction earlier will have positive effects only if it occurs in combination with either higher levels of exposure time to the foreign language, or, alternatively, with its use as the language of instruction in other areas of the curriculum.

Geology of the NW Indian Himalaya

This review paper deals with the geology of the NW Indian Himalaya situated in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Garhwal. The models and mechanisms discussed, concerning the tectonic and metamorphic history of the Himalayan range, are based on a new compilation of a geological map and cross sections, as well as on paleomagnetic, stratigraphic, petrologic, structural, metamorphic, thermobarometric and radiometric data. The protolith of the Himalayan range, the North Indian flexural passive margin of the Neo-Tethys ocean, consists of a Lower Proterozoic basement, intruded by 1.8-1.9 Ga bimodal magmatites, overlain by a horizontally stratified sequence of Upper Proterozoic to Paleocene sediments, intruded by 470-500 Ma old Ordovician mainly peraluminous s-type granites, Carboniferous tholeiitic to alkaline basalts and intruded and overlain by Permian tholeiitic continental flood basalts. No elements of the Archaen crystalline basement of the South Indian shield have been identified in the Himalayan range. Deformation of the Himalayan accretionary wedge resulted from the continental collision of India and Asia beginning some 65-55 Ma ago, after the NE-directed underthrusting of the Neo-Tethys oceanic crust below Asia and the formation of the Andean-type 103-50 (-41) Ma old Ladakh batholith to the north of the Indus Suture. Cylindrical in geometry, the Himalayan range consists, from NE to SW, from older to younger tectonic elements, of the following zones: 1) The 25 km wide Ladakh batholith and the Asian mantle wedge form the backstop of the growing Himalayan accretionary wedge. 2) The Indus Suture zone is composed of obducted slices of the oceanic crust, island arcs, like the Dras arc, overlain by Late Cretaceous fore arc basin sediments and the mainly Paleocene to Early Eocene and Miocene epi-sutural intra-continental Indus molasse. 3) The Late Paleocene to Eocene North Himalayan nappe stack, up to 40 km thick prior to erosion, consists of Upper Proterozoic to Paleocene rocks, with the eclogitic and coesite bearing Tso Morari gneiss nappe at its base. It includes a branch of the Central Himalayan detachment, the 22-18 Ma old Zanskar Shear zone that is intruded and dated by the 22 Ma Gumburanjun leucogranite; it reactivates the frontal thrusts of the SW-verging North Himalayan nappes. 4) The late Eocene-Miocene SW-directed High Himalayan or ``Crystalline'' nappe comprises Upper Proterozoic to Mesozoic sediments and Ordovician granites, identical to those of the North Himalayan nappes. The Main Central thrust at its base was created in a zone of Eocene to Early Oligocene anatexis by ductile detachment of the subducted Indian crust, below the pre-existing 25-35 km thick NE-directed Shikar Beh and SW-directed North Himalayan nappe stacks. 5) The late Miocene Lesser Himalayan thrust with the Main Boundary Thrust at its base consists of early Proterozoic to Cambrian rocks intruded by 1.8-1.9 Ga bimodal magmatites. The Subhimalaya is a thrust wedge of Himalayan fore deep basin sediments, composed of the Early Eocene marine Subathu marls and sandstones as well as the up to 8'000 m-thick Miocene to recent Ganga molasse, a coarsening upwards sequence of shales, sandstones and conglomerates. The active frontal thrust is covered by the sediments of the Indus-Ganga plains.

Second hand tobacco smoke exposure in Switzerland

A passive sampling device called Monitor of NICotine or "MoNIC", was constructed and evaluated by IST laboratory for determining nicotine in Second Hand Tobacco Smoke (SHTS) or Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS). Vapour nicotine was passively collected on a potassium bisulfate treated glass fibre filter as collection medium. Analysis of collected nicotine on the treated filter by gas chromatography equipped with Thermoionic-Specific Detector (GC-TSD) after liquid-liquid extraction of 1mL of 5N NaOH : 1 mL of n-heptane saturated with NH3 using quinoline as internal standard. Based on nicotine amount of 0.2 mg/cigarette as the reference, the inhaled Cigarette Equivalents (CE) by non-smokers can be calculated. Using the detected CE on the badge for non-smokers, and comparing with amount of nicotine and cotinine level in saliva of both smokers and exposed non-smokers, we can confirm the use of the CE concept for estimating exposure to ETS. The regional CIPRET (Center of information and prevention of the addiction to smoking) of different cantons (Valais (VS), Vaud (VD), Neuchâtel (NE) and Fribourg (FR)) are going to organize a big campaign on the subject of the passive addiction to smoking. This campaign took place in 2007-2008 and has for objective to inform clearly the Swiss population of the dangerousness of the passive smoke. More than 3'900 MoNIC badges were gracefully distributed to Swiss population to perform a self-monitoring of population exposure level to ETS, expressed in term of CE. Non-stimulated saliva was also collected to determine ETS biomarkers nicotine/cotinine levels of participating volunteers. Results of different levels of CE in occupational and non-occupational situations in relation with ETS were presented in this study. This study, unique in Switzerland, has established a base map on the population's exposure to SHTS. It underscored the fact that all the Swiss people involved in this campaign (N=1241) is exposed to passive smoke, from <0.2 cig/d (10.8%), 1-2 to more than 10 cig/d (89.2%). In the area of high exposure (15-38 cig/d), are the most workers in public restaurant, cafe, bar, disco. By monitoring ETS tracer nicotine and its biomarkers, salivary nicotine and cotinine, it is demonstrated that the MoNIC badge can serve as indicator of CE passive smoking. The MoNIC badge, accompanied with content of salivary nicotine/cotinine can serve as a tool of evaluation of the ETS passive smoking and contributes to supply useful data for future epidemiological studies. It is also demonstrated that the salivary nicotine (without stimulation) is a better biomarker of ETS exposure than cotinine.

Diffusion in spatially and temporarily inhomogeneous media: Effects of turbulent mixing

We consider diffusion of a passive substance C in a phase-separating nonmiscible binary alloy under turbulent mixing. The substance is assumed to have different diffusion coefficients in the pure phases A and B, leading to a spatially and temporarily dependent diffusion ¿coefficient¿ in the diffusion equation plus convective term. In this paper we consider especially the effects of a turbulent flow field coupled to both the Cahn-Hilliard type evolution equation of the medium and the diffusion equation (both, therefore, supplemented by a convective term). It is shown that the formerly observed prolonged anomalous diffusion [H. Lehr, F. Sagués, and J.M. Sancho, Phys. Rev. E 54, 5028 (1996)] is no longer seen if a flow of sufficient intensity is supplied.