Mikrobielle Nutzung von Ernteresten in Bodensäulen und Litterbags

Die vorliegende Arbeit untersuchte die Einflüsse der Bodenart und Einarbeitungstiefe von Streu auf die mikrobielle Nutzung und ihren Abbau. Anhand einer Kohlenstoffsequestrierung wurde die Verlagerung streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes in die Fraktionen CO2-C, SOC, extrahierbaren Kohlenstoff, Cmik und POM-C betrachtet. Aufgrund der Analyse der δ13C-CO2 Werte der Bodenrespiration, im Rahmen der Sequestrierung des streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes, war der Anteil der streubürtigen Bodenrespiration und somit die gesamte, zu erwartende Bodenrespiration bekannt. Durch die, bei der Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, ermittelten Werte konnte eine Plausibilitätsprüfung an vier Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration, auf ihre Genauigkeit und mögliche Artefakte hin, durchgeführt werden. Des Weiteren wurden in einem anschließenden Freilandversuch unter subtropischen Bedingungen die Einflüsse verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte, in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität, auf den Streuabbau und die mikrobielle Besiedelung hin untersucht. Im ersten Versuch (Kapitel 3), wurde anhand eines Säulenversuches der Einfluss der Einarbeitungstiefe, in Anhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf den Streuabbau untersucht. Dieses ist von großer Bedeutung, da auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen Streu und so genannte "Grüne Dünger" durch den Einsatz unterschiedlicher Bodenbearbeitungssysteme, wie z.B. der Kreiselegge oder dem Wendepflug, in unterschiedliche Tiefen eingearbeitet werden. Die Verlagerung streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen, über eine Distanz von bis zu 20 cm wurde innerhalb dieser Arbeit das erste Mal gezeigt. Bisherige Studien zeigten einzig einen Transport von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff per Pilzhyphen, über eine kurze Distanz von der Detritussphäre in den angrenzenden Boden. Der höhere Anteil streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes innerhalb der von der Streuschicht weiter entfernten Schichten im sandigen Boden, im Vergleich zum lehmigen Boden zeigte, dass das feine Porenvolumen des lehmigen Bodens den Transport Streubürtigen Kohlenstoffes per Pilzhyphen grundsätzlich behindert. Diese Annahme wurde durch die stärkere Abnahme des Anteils streubürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes, mit zunehmender Entfernung zur Streuschicht, im lehmigen Boden im Vergleich zum sandigen Boden unterstützt. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass der sandige Boden zusätzlich durch die höhere Porosität eine erhöhte Sauerstoffdurchlässigkeit und somit, in den tieferen Schichten bessere Wachstumsbedingungen für Mikroorganismen bietet als der lehmige Boden. Durch die Ausbreitung substratbürtigen mikrobiellen Kohlenstoffes wurde im sandigen Boden mehr streubürtiger Kohlenstoff durch Mikroorganismen inkorporiert als im lehmigen Boden. Ein weiterer Grund für die geringere Verlagerung von streubürtigem Kohlenstoff in die mikrobielle Biomasse des lehmigen Bodens ist wahrscheinlich der bessere physikalische Schutz durch den höheren Tonanteil. Durch die Einarbeitung der Streu stieg in allen Ansätzen der Gehalt an Ergosterol, welcher ein wesentlicher Indikator für die Präsenz saprotropher Pilze ist. Besonders stark ausgeprägt war der Anstieg des Ergosterolgehaltes, sowie des Ergosterol / mikrobielle Biomasse C – Quotienten, wenn Streu in die untere Schicht (15 - 20 cm) ein-gearbeitet wurde. Diese tiefenspezifischen Unterschiede wurden bisher in noch keinem weiteren Versuch beobachtet und können auf die Entwicklung unterschiedlicher pilzlicher Gemeinschaften zurück zu führen sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass pilzliche Nekromasse in den oberen Bodenschichten schneller umgesetzt wird und somit bei der Ergosterolbestimmung nicht mit erfasst wird. Da der Umsatz der pilzlichen Nekromasse im porösen sandigen Boden, aufgrund der höheren Sauerstoffverfügbarkeit und des geringeren physikalischen Schutzes, vermutlich höher ist als im lehmigen Boden, wird diese Annahme durch den im sandigen Boden geringeren Gehalt an mikrobiellen Kohlenstoff unterstützt. Wie erwartet, überstieg die Mineralisation der Streu im sandigen Boden die der im lehmigen Boden. Jedoch anders als erwartet, unterschied sich die Mineralisation in Abhängigkeit der Einarbeitungstiefe, mit einer erhöhten Mineralisation bei Einarbeitung der Streu in 0 - 5 cm Tiefe, einzig im sandigen Boden. Die Berechnung des Ertragskoeffizienten zeigte, dass die Substratsnutzungseffizienz der Mikroorganismen im sandigen Boden signifikant geringer war als die im lehmigen Boden. Die Zugabe von Streu führte in beiden Böden, verstärkt jedoch im lehmigen Boden, zu einem positiven Priming Effekt, der in beiden Bö-den stärker ausgeprägt war, als Streu in 0–5 cm Tiefe eingearbeitet wurde. Trotz Abnahme der SOC-bürtigen mikrobiellen Biomasse stieg die Mineralisation des SOC stark an. Es ist anzunehmen, dass extrazelluläre Enzyme wie Cellulase und Lignin modifizierende Enzy-me, produziert von saprotrophen Pilzen, zum Abbau von Cellolose und Lignin der Streu, zum Teil sehr effizient SOC abbauen. Im zweiten Versuch (Kapitel 4) wurde anhand des gleichen Säulenversuches (Versuch 1; Kapitel 3) der Einfluss der Entfernung von CO2-hot-spots im Boden zur Bodenoberfläche, in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart, auf vier verschiedene Methoden zur Erfassung der Bodenrespiration betrachtet. Zusätzlich wurde durch eine Plausibilitätsprüfung anhand der Kohlenstoffbilanz, basierend auf der in Versuch 1 durchgeführten Kohlenstoffsequestrierung, die Genauigkeit der vier Methoden in Abhängigkeit der Bodenart überprüft. Für beide Ansätze mit sandigem Boden zeigen IR und PAS eine deutliche Überschätzung der mit NaOH und GC bestimmten Bodenrespiration. Die Überschätzung durch IR ist dabei auf die durch die dynamische Haube verursachten Turbulenzen und deren Auswirkungen auf den porösen sandigen Boden zurück zu führen. Bei geringen Respirationsraten, wie bei der Kontrolle, zeigt die Messung mittels IR trotz Turbulenzen, verursacht durch den Ventilator der Haube, keine Überschätzung. Die Überschätzung durch PAS hingegen kann nicht auf Turbulenzen, verursacht durch die dynamische Haube, zurück geführt werden, da bei den Analysen mit PAS und GC identische Hauben, höher und größer als bei IR, eingesetzt wurden und die Bodenrespiration durch GC nicht überschätzt wurde. Im Gegensatz zu beiden sandigen Ansätzen überschätzt IR die Bodenrespiration im lehmigen Boden nicht. NaOH hingegen unterschätzt die Bodenrespiration, wenn Streu in 15-20 cm Tiefe des lehmigen Bodens eingearbeitet ist. Dieses ist dadurch zu erklären, dass, bedingt durch die geringere Porosität sowie das höhere Wasserhaltevermögen und dem daraus resultierenden geringeren Luft gefüllten Porenvolumen, die Diffusion von CO2 im lehmigen Boden langsamer ist als im sandigen Boden. Nach Absorption des CO2 der Haubenluft diffundiert das CO2 des CO2-hot-spots in 15-20 cm Tiefe, entlang des Diffusionsgradienten, aufgrund des Diffusionswiderstandes in lehmigen Boden langsamer zur Oberfläche als im sandigen Boden oder wenn der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche liegt. Da bei der Messung mit der dynamischen Haube diese nur kurz auf der Fläche verbleibt, beeinflusst der Diffusionsgradient diese Messungen nicht. Hinzukommt, dass bei den Messsystemen, die in Kombination mit der dynamischen Haube eingesetzt werden, im Gegensatz zur Absorption durch Lauge keine CO2 Abreicherung stattfindet und die Diffusion von CO2 aus dem Boden über lange Zeit bis zu hohen CO2 Konzentration in der Haube linear bleibt. Alle drei mit einer dynamischen Haube kombinierten Methoden zeigen mit Korrelations-koeffizienten zwischen 0,90 und 0,93 starke Korrelationen mit NaOH. Während PAS die Bodenrespiration im Verhältnis zu NaOH immer überschätzt, tritt eine Überschätzung durch GC nur bei Mineralisationsraten unter 500 mg m-2 h-1 und für IR bei Mineralisations-raten über 40 mg m-2 h-1 ein. Die Plausibilitätsprüfung zeigt, dass für sandigen Boden, mit NaOH und GC eine sehr exakte Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff erreicht wird, wohingegen IR und PAS in der Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff bei deutlich über 100 % liegen. Für den lehmigen Boden hingegen ist nach Entfernung der CO2-hot-spots zur Bodenoberfläche zu differenzieren. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot direkt unter der Bodenoberfläche ist die Wiederfindung von Kohlenstoff für NaOH, GC und IR sehr exakt. Befindet sich der CO2-hot-spot jedoch in 15-20 cm Tiefe, ist die Wiederfindung des Kohlenstoffes durch NaOH deutlich unter 100 %. Die Wiederfindung durch PAS liegt sowohl für den sandigen als auch für den lehmigen Boden immer deutlich über 100 %. Im dritten Versuch (Kapitel 5), wurde anhand eines Litterbag-Versuches im Norden des Omans, der Einfluss verschiedener Dünger und Feldfrüchte auf den Abbau von Streu auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen in Abhängigkeit der Streuqualität betrachtet. Bei dem Großteil bisheriger Streuabbauversuche, unter gemäßigten und subtropischen Klimaten, stand der Abbau von Streu im Wald im Fokus der Betrachtung. Die wenigen Versuche zum Streuabbau auf landwirtschaftlich genutzten Flächen beschränken sich auf die gemäßigten Klimate. Wohingegen der Abbau von Streu, sowie der Einfluss von Dünger und Feldfrucht unter subtropischen Bedingungen, zum ersten mal mit der vorliegenden Arbeit fokussiert wurde. Der Verlust an organischem Material war verglichen mit Versuchen un-ter gemäßigten Klimaten, bei allen vier Streuarten, generell hoch. Der höhere Abbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu ist auf Unterschiede der Streuqualität zurückzuführen. Neben der Verwertbarkeit durch Mikroorganismen beeinflusst die Streuqualität zusätzlich die "Schmackhaftigkeit" der Streu für Organismen der Mesofauna. Wodurch ein selektiver Transport und/oder Grazing von Mikroorganismen stattfindet. Der geringere Abbau der Luzernenstreu verglichen mit Maisstreu jedoch ist nicht auf die Streuqualität sondern auf die geringere mikrobielle Besiedelung der Luzernenstreu während der Versuchszeit zurückzuführen. Der Unterschied im Grad der mikrobiellen Besiedelung kann durch die erhobenen Daten nicht erklärt werden. Es ist jedoch davon auszugehen, dass Leguminosen Substanzen wie z.B. Polyphenole enthalten, welche die mikrobielle Biomasse und im Besonderen die pilzliche Biomasse in beachtlichem Umfang inhibitieren. Ebenso wenig ist der höhere Abbau von Weizenstreu verglichen mit Rapsstreu durch die Streuqualität zu begründen. Eine mögliche Erklärung für den geringeren Abbau der Rapsstreu kann ihr hoher Aluminium Gehalt sein. Es ist jedoch wahrscheinlicher, dass die Rapsstreu organische Substanzen wie Glucosinolate enthält, welche den mikrobiellen Streuabbau inhibitieren. Während der Hemicellulosegehalt am Ende des Versuches nicht durch die Streuqualität beeinflusst war, zeigten Cellulose und Lignin quali-tätsabhängige Effekte. Der stärkere Abbau von Cellulose bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu ist auf den anfänglich höheren Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen, wodurch die Produktion und Aktivität von Cellulose degradierenden Enzymen, wie Exo-Cellulase, Endo-Cellulase und Xylanase, anstieg. Es ist davon auszugehen, dass die Differenzen im Celluloseabbau von Luzernen- und Maisstreu im Vergleich zu Raps- und Weizenstreu, neben Unterschieden im anfänglichen Stickstoffgehalt, auf den höheren Schutz von Cellulose durch Lignin in Raps- und Weizenstreu zurückzuführen sind. Während der initial geringe Stickstoffgehalt den Ligninabbau in Raps- und Weizenstreu unterstützt, ist die relative Anreicherung von Lignin in Luzernen- und Maisstreu hingegen auf den initial hohen Stickstoffgehalt zurückzuführen. Dem entgegen hat die Zusammensetzung weiterer Nährstoffe einen sehr geringen Effekt. Es ist jedoch möglich, dass stärkere Effekte durch den Eintrag von Boden in die Litterbags durch Organismen der Mesofauna, Wurzelwachstum oder physikalische Verlagerung überdeckt werden. Während unter organische Düngung, die pilzliche Biomasse ansteigt, fördert der leicht verfügbare Stickstoff der mineralischen Düngung die Bildung bakterieller Biomasse. Der höher Gehalt an pilzlicher Biomasse unter organischer Düngung zeigte keinen generellen Effekt auf den Abbau von Kohlenstoff. Er führte jedoch zu einer Veränderung in der Streuzusammensetzung. Die verringerte Abnahme bzw. verstärkte Zunahme der Nährstoffgehalte bei organischer Düngung ist durch den Eintrag dünger-bürtiger Nährstoffe, im Besonderen durch die verstärkte Bildung pilzlicher Hyphen in die Litterbags hinein, zu erklären. Trotz höherer Gehalte an pilzlicher Biomasse war der Ligningehalt am Ende des Versuches unter organischer Düngung höher als unter mineralischer Düngung. Diese ist auf den Eintrag düngerbürtiger Pilze zurückzuführen, welche eine geringere Lignindegradierungseffizienz aufweisen. Der Einfluss der Feldfrucht auf den Streuabbau äußert sich durch höhere Gehalte mikrobieller und im Besonderen pilzlicher Biomasse, und durch geringere Gehalte an N, P, Ca, Na und K in, im Litterbag verbleiben-der Streu, unter dem Anbau von Mohrrüben. Der Anstieg der pilzlichen Biomasse führt, ebenso wie bei der organischen Düngung zu keinem generellen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffdegradation, zeigt jedoch einen selektiven Effekt auf den Abbau von Cellulose. Der Einfluss, sowohl auf die mikrobielle Biomasse, als auch auf den Nährstoffgehalt, zeigt die Bedeutung der Unterschiede im Wurzelwachstum, der Rhizodeposition sowie des Nährstoffbedarfs in Abhängigkeit der Feldfrucht. Trotz großer Unterschiede der Streuarten im anfänglichen Gehalt mikrobieller Biomasse war dieser am Ende des Versuches für alle Streuarten identisch. Dieses war Folge eines starken Anstiegs der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Luzernen- und Maisstreu sowie einer Abnahme der pilzlichen Biomasse bei Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche zuvor noch nicht beobachtet wurde. Dieses macht den Einfluss der anfänglichen mikrobiellen Biomasse auf deren Entwicklung während des Streuabbauprozesses im Boden deutlich. Es ist anzunehmen, dass ein Teil der anfänglichen pilzlichen Biomasse der Raps- und Weizenstreu, welche sich unter gemäßigten Klimaten entwickelte, unter subtropischen Bedingungen nicht überlebensfähig war. Generell war der Streuabbau durch Pilze dominiert. Es zeigte sich jedoch, dass Unterschiede im Pflanzenmaterial einen Einfluss auf die bakterielle Biomasse hatten, Unterschiede in Düngung und Feldfrucht hingegen die pilzliche Biomasse und die bakterielle Biomasse beeinflussten.

Pharmaceutical consumption and residuals potentially relevant to nutrient cycling in Greater Accra, Ghana

Recycling nutrients form sanitary wastes back into agricultural ecosystems offers an option to alleviate soil depletion in regions where the use of mineral fertiliser is limited. Exemplary nutrient and water cycling approaches, including collection, treatment and use of human urine, are established at Valley View University (VVU) in Greater Accra, Ghana. Concerns have been recently raised in regard to fate and impact of pharmaceutical residues in soils and interlinked environment. To evaluate in how far emerging knowledge can be transposed onto VVU, urban and rural environments in Greater Accra, spatial disease occurrence and drug consumption patterns were studied. Malaria has been found to represent the most severe health burden in Ghana, but there is also a high prevalence of infectious diseases. Drugs consumed in great quantities and in respect to their residual loads potentially problematic in the environment belong to therapeutic groups of: antibiotics, analgesics, drugs for diabetes, antimalarials, cardiovascular drugs and anthelmintics. Drug consumption revealed to be highest in urban and lowest in rural areas. At VVU the range of consumed drugs is comparable to urban areas except for the negligible use of diabetes and cardiovascular medication as well as contraceptives.

Nutrient cycling and nutrient use efficiency in urban and peri-urban agriculture of Kabul, Afghanistan

Like elsewhere also in Kabul, Afghanistan urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) has often been accused of being resource inefficient and unsustainable causing negatives externalities to community health and to the surroundings. These arise from the inappropriate management and use of agricultural inputs, including often pesticides and inter-city wastes containing heavy metal residues and pathogens. To address these concerns, parallel studies with the aims of quantification of carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) horizontal and vertical fluxes; the assessment of heavy metal and pathogen contaminations of UPA produce, and an economic analysis of cereal, vegetable and grape production systems conducted for two years in UPA of Kabul from April 2008 to October 2009. The results of the studies from these three UPA diverse production systems can be abridged as follows: Biennial net balances in vegetable production systems were positive for N (80 kg ha-1 ), P (75 kg ha-1) and C (3,927 kg ha-1), negative for K (-205 kg ha-1), whereas in cereal production systems biennial horizontal balances were positive for P (20 kg ha-1 ) and C (4,900 kg ha-1) negative for N (-155 kg ha-1) and K (-355 kg ha-1) and in vineyards corresponding values were highly positive for N (295 kg ha-1), P (235 kg ha-1), C (3,362 kg ha-1) and slightly positive for K (5 kg ha-1). Regardless of N and C gaseous emissions, yearly leaching losses of N and P in selected vegetable gardens varied from 70 - 205 kg N ha-1 and 5 - 10 kg P ha-1. Manure and irrigation water contributed on average 12 - 79% to total Inputs of N, P, K and C, 10 - 53% to total inputs of C in the gardens and fields. The elevated levels of heavy metal and pathogen loads on fresh UPA vegetables reflected contamination from increasing traffic in the city, deposits of the past decades of war, lacking collection and treatment of raw inter-city wastes which call for solutions to protect consumer and producer health and increase reliability of UPA productions. A cost-revenue analysis of all inputs and outputs of cereal, vegetable and grapes production systems over two years showed substantial differences in net UPA household income. To confirm these results, more detailed studies are needed, but tailoring and managing the optimal application of inputs to crop needs will significantly enhance farmer’s better revenues as will as environmental and produce quality.

Agricultural practices and horizontal nutrient balances in urban gardens and the alternative use of urban agricultural land in Khartoum, Sudan

The surge in the urban population evident in most developing countries is a worldwide phenomenon, and often the result of drought, conflicts, poverty and the lack of education opportunities. In parallel with the growth of the cities is the growing need for food which leads to the burgeoning expansion of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). In this context, urban agriculture (UA) contributes significantly to supplying local markets with both vegetable and animal produce. As an income generating activity, UA also contributes to the livelihoods of poor urban dwellers. In order to evaluate the nutrient status of urban soils in relation to garden management, this study assessed nutrient fluxes (inputs and outputs) in gardens on urban Gerif soils on the banks of the River Nile in Khartoum, the capital city of Sudan. To achieve this objective, a preliminary baseline survey was carried out to describe the structure of the existing garden systems. In cooperation with the author of another PhD thesis (Ms. Ishtiag Abdalla), alternative uses of cow dung in brick making kilns in urban Khartoum were assessed; and the socio-economic criteria of the brick kiln owners or agents, economical and plant nutritional value of animal dung and the gaseous emission related to brick making activities were assessed. A total of 40 household heads were interviewed using a semi-structured questionnaire to collect information on demographic, socio-economic and migratory characteristics of the household members, the gardening systems used and the problems encountered in urban gardening. Based on the results of this survey, gardens were divided into three groups: mixed vegetable-fodder gardens, mixed vegetable-subsistence livestock gardens and pure vegetable gardens. The results revealed that UA is the exclusive domain of men, 80% of them non-native to Khartoum. The harvested produce in all gardens was market oriented and represented the main source of income for 83% of the gardeners. Fast growing leafy vegetables such as Jew’s mallow (Corchorous olitorius L.), purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) and rocket (Eruca sativa Mill.) were the dominant cultivated species. Most of the gardens (95%) were continuously cultivated throughout the year without any fallow period, unless they were flooded. Gardeners were not generally aware of the importance of crop diversity, which may help them overcome the strongly fluctuating market prices for their produce and thereby strengthen the contributions of UA to the overall productivity of the city. To measure nutrient fluxes, four gardens were selected and their nutrients inputs and outputs flows were monitored. In each garden, all plots were monitored for quantification of nutrient inputs and outputs. To determine soil chemical fertility parameters in each of the studied gardens, soil samples were taken from three selected plots at the beginning of the study in October 2007 (gardens L1, L2 and H1) and in April 2008 (garden H2) and at the end of the study period in March 2010. Additional soil sampling occurred in May 2009 to assess changes in the soil nutrient status after the River Nile flood of 2008 had receded. Samples of rain and irrigation water (river and well-water) were analyzed for nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K) and carbon (C) content to determine their nutrient inputs. Catchment traps were installed to quantify the sediment yield from the River Nile flood. To quantify the nutrient inputs of sediments, samples were analyzed for N, P, K and organic carbon (Corg) content, cation exchange capacity (CEC) and the particle size distribution. The total nutrient inputs were calculated by multiplying the sediment nutrient content by total sediment deposits on individual gardens. Nutrient output in the form of harvested yield was quantified at harvest of each crop. Plant samples from each field were dried, and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. Cumulative leaching losses of mineral N and P were estimated in a single plot in garden L1 from December 1st 2008 to July 1st 2009 using 12 ion exchange resins cartridges. Nutrients were extracted and analyzed for nitrate (NO3--N), ammonium (NH4+-N) and phosphate PO4-3-P. Changes in soil nutrient balance were assessed as inputs minus outputs. The results showed that across gardens, soil N and P concentrations increased from 2007 to 2009, while particle size distribution remained unchanged. Sediment loads and their respective contents of N, P and Corg decreased significantly (P < 0.05) from the gardens of the downstream lowlands (L1 and L2) to the gardens of the upstream highlands (H1 and H2). No significant difference was found in K deposits. None of the gardens received organic fertilizers and the only mineral fertilizer applied was urea (46-0-0). This equaled 29, 30, 54, and 67% of total N inputs to gardens L1, L2, H1, and H2, respectively. Sediment deposits of the River Nile floods contributed on average 67, 94, 6 and 42% to the total N, P, K and C inputs in lowland gardens and 33, 86, 4 and 37% of total N, P, K and C inputs in highland gardens. Irrigation water and rainfall contributed substantially to K inputs representing 96, 92, 94 and 96% of total K influxes in garden L1, L2, H1 and H2, respectively. Following the same order, total annual DM yields in the gardens were 26, 18, 16 and 1.8 t ha-1. Annual leaching losses were estimated to be 0.02 kg NH4+-N ha-1 (SE = 0.004), 0.03 kg NO3--N ha-1 (SE = 0.002) and 0.005 kg PO4-3-P ha-1 (SE = 0.0007). Differences between nutrient inputs and outputs indicated negative nutrient balances for P and K and positive balances of N and C for all gardens. The negative balances in P and K call for adoptions of new agricultural techniques such as regular manure additions or mulching which may enhance the soil organic matter status. A quantification of fluxes not measured in our study such as N2-fixation, dry deposition and gaseous emissions of C and N would be necessary to comprehensively assess the sustainability of these intensive gardening systems. The second part of the survey dealt with the brick making kilns. A total of 50 brick kiln owners/or agents were interviewed from July to August 2009, using a semi-structured questionnaire. The data collected included general information such as age, family size, education, land ownership, number of kilns managed and/or owned, number of months that kilns were in operation, quantity of inputs (cow dung and fuel wood) used, prices of inputs and products across the production season. Information related to the share value of the land on which the kilns were built and annual income for urban farmers and annual returns from dung for the animal raisers was also collected. Using descriptive statistics, budget calculation and Gini coefficient, the results indicated that renting the land to brick making kilns yields a 5-fold higher return than the rent for agriculture. Gini coefficient showed that the kiln owners had a more equal income distribution compared to farmers. To estimate emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) and losses of N, P, K, Corg and DM from cow dung when used in brick making, samples of cow dung (loose and compacted) were collected from different kilns and analyzed for their N, P, K and Corg content. The procedure modified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 1994) was used to estimate the gaseous emissions of cow dung and fuel wood. The amount of deforested wood was estimated according to the default values for wood density given by Dixon et al. (1991) and the expansion ratio for branches and small trees given by Brown et al. (1989). The data showed the monetary value of added N and P from cow dung was lower than for mineral fertilizers. Annual consumption of compacted dung (381 t DM) as biomass fuel by far exceeded the consumption of fuel wood (36 t DM). Gaseous emissions from cow dung and fuel wood were dominated by CO2, CO and CH4. Considering that Gerif land in urban Khartoum supports a multifunctional land use system, efficient use of natural resources (forest, dung, land and water) will enhance the sustainability of the UA and brick making activities. Adoption of new kilns with higher energy efficiency will reduce the amount of biomass fuels (cow dung and wood) used the amount of GHGs emitted and the threat to the few remaining forests.

Soil fertility and nutrient status of traditional Gayo coffee agroforestry systems in the Takengon region, Aceh Province, Indonesia

Little is known about the traditional coffee cultivation systems in Central Aceh, Indonesia, where coffee production is a major source of income for local Gayo people. Based on field observations and farmer interviews, 14 representative agroforestry coffee plantations of different age classes (60-70 years, 30-40 years, and 20 years) as well as seven adjacent grassland and native forest sites were selected for this study, and soil and coffee leaf samples collected for nutrient analysis. Significant differences in soil and coffee leaf parameters were found between former native forest and Sumatran pine (Pinus merkusii) forest as previous land cover indicating the importance of the land use history for today’s coffee cultivation. Soil pH as well as exchangeable Na and Ca concentrations were significantly lower on coffee plantations compared to grassland and forest sites. Soil C, N, plant available P, exchangeable K, and Mg concentrations showed no consistent differences between land use groups. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) concentrations of coffee leaves were in the sufficiency range, whereas zinc (Zn) contents were found to be consistently below the sufficiency threshold and significantly lower in coffee plantations of previous pine forest cover compared to those of previous native forest cover. While the results of this study provided insights into the nutrient status of coffee plantations in Central Aceh, the heterogeneity of site conditions, limited sampling size, and scarcity of reliable data about the land use history and initial soil conditions of sampled sites preclude more definitive conclusions about the sustainability of the studied systems.

Status and Potential of Smallholder Livestock Production Systems in Xishuangbanna, southern P.R. China

With Chinas rapid economic development during the last decades, the national demand for livestock products has quadrupled within the last 20 years. Most of that increase in demand has been answered by subsidized industrialized production systems, while million of smallholders, which still provide the larger share of livestock products in the country, have been neglected. Fostering those systems would help China to lower its strong urban migration streams, enhance the livelihood of poorer rural population and provide environmentally save livestock products which have a good chance to satisfy customers demand for ecological food. Despite their importance, China’s smallholder livestock keepers have not yet gained appropriate attention from governmental authorities and researchers. However, profound analysis of those systems is required so that adequate support can lead to a better resource utilization and productivity in the sector. To this aim, this pilot study analyzes smallholder livestock production systems in Xishuangbanna, located in southern China. The area is bordered by Lao and Myanmar and geographically counts as tropical region. Its climate is characterized by dry and temperate winters and hot summers with monsoon rains from May to October. While the regionis plain, at about 500 m asl above sea level in the south, outliers of the Himalaya mountains reach out into the north of Xishuangbanna, where the highest peak reaches 2400 m asl. Except of one larger city, Jinghong, Xishuangbanna mainly is covered by tropical rainforest, areas under agricultural cultivation and villages. The major income is generated through inner-Chinese tourism and agricultural production. Intensive rubber plantations are distinctive for the lowland plains while small-scaled traditional farms are scattered in the mountane regions. In order to determine the current state and possible future chances of smallholder livestock production in that region, this study analyzed the current status of the smallholder livestock sector in the Naban River National Nature Reserve (NRNNR), an area which is largely representative for the whole prefecture. It covers an area of about 50square kilometer and reaches from 470 up to 2400 m asl. About 5500 habitants of different ethnic origin are situated in 24 villages. All data have been collected between October 2007 and May 2010. Three major objectives have been addressed in the study: 1. Classifying existing pig production systems and exploring respective pathways for development 2. Quantifying the performance of pig breeding systemsto identify bottlenecks for production 3. Analyzing past and current buffalo utilization to determine the chances and opportunities of buffalo keeping in the future In order to classify the different pig production s ystems, a baseline survey (n=204, stratified cluster sampling) was carried out to gain data about livestock species, numbers, management practices, cultivated plant species and field sizes as well associo-economic characteristics. Sampling included two clusters at village level (altitude, ethnic affiliation), resulting in 13 clusters of which 13-17 farms were interviewed respectively. Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CatPCA) and a two-step clustering algorithm have been applied to identify determining farm characteristics and assort recorded households into classes of livestock production types. The variables keep_sow_yes/no, TLU_pig, TLU_buffalo, size_of_corn_fields, altitude_class, size_of_tea_plantationand size_of_rubber_fieldhave been found to be major determinants for the characterization of the recorded farms. All farms have extensive or semi-intensive livestock production, pigs and buffaloes are predominant livestock species while chicken and aquaculture are available but play subordinate roles for livelihoods. All pig raisers rely on a single local breed, which is known as Small Ear Pig (SMEP) in the region. Three major production systemshave been identified: Livestock-corn based LB; 41%), rubber based (RB; 39%) and pig based (PB;20%) systems. RB farms earn high income from rubber and fatten 1.9 ±1.80 pigs per household (HH), often using purchased pig feed at markets. PB farms own similar sized rubber plantations and raise 4.7 ±2.77 pigs per HH, with fodder mainly being cultivated and collected in theforest. LB farms grow corn, rice and tea and keep 4.6 ±3.32 pigs per HH, also fed with collected and cultivated fodder. Only 29% of all pigs were marketed (LB: 20%; RB: 42%; PB: 25%), average annual mortality was 4.0 ±4.52 pigs per farm (LB: 4.6 ±3.68; RB: 1.9 ±2.14; PB: 7.1 ±10.82). Pig feed mainly consists of banana pseudo stem, corn and rice hives and is prepared in batches about two to three times per week. Such fodder might be sufficient in energy content but lacks appropriate content of protein. Pigs therefore suffer from malnutrition, which becomes most critical in the time before harvest season around October. Farmers reported high occurrences of gastrointestinal parasites in carcasses and often pig stables were wet and filled with manure. Deficits in nutritional and hygienic management are major limits for development and should be the first issues addressed to improve productivity. SME pork was found to be known and referred by local customers in town and by richer lowland farmers. However, high prices and lacking availability of SME pork at local wet-markets were the reasons which limited purchase. If major management constraints are overcome, pig breeders (PB and LB farms) could increase the share of marketed pigs for town markets and provide fatteners to richer RB farmers. RB farmers are interested in fattening pigs for home consumption but do not show any motivation for commercial pig raising. To determine the productivity of input factors in pig production, eproductive performance, feed quality and quantity as well as weight development of pigs under current management were recorded. The data collection included a progeny history survey covering 184 sows and 437 farrows, bi-weekly weighing of 114 pigs during a 16-months time-span on 21 farms (10 LB and 11 PB) as well as the daily recording of feed quality and quantity given to a defined number of pigs on the same 21 farms. Feed samples of all recorded ingredients were analyzed for their respective nutrient content. Since no literature values on thedigestibility of banana pseudo stem – which is a major ingredient of traditional pig feed in NRNNR – were found, a cross-sectional digestibility trial with 2x4 pigs has been conducted on a station in the research area. With the aid of PRY Herd Life Model, all data have been utilized to determine thesystems’ current (Status Quo = SQ) output and the productivity of the input factor “feed” in terms of saleable life weight per kg DM feed intake and monetary value of output per kg DM feed intake.Two improvement scenarios were simulated, assuming 1) that farmers adopt a culling managementthat generates the highest output per unit input (Scenario 1; SC I) and 2) that through improved feeding, selected parameters of reproduction are improved by 30% (SC II). Daily weight gain averaged 55 ± 56 g per day between day 200 and 600. The average feed energy content of traditional feed mix was 14.92 MJ ME. Age at first farrowing averaged 14.5 ± 4.34 months, subsequent inter-farrowing interval was 11.4 ± 2.73 months. Littersize was 5.8 piglets and weaning age was 4.3 ± 0.99 months. 18% of piglets died before weaning. Simulating pig production at actualstatus, it has been show that monetary returns on inputs (ROI) is negative (1:0.67), but improved (1:1.2) when culling management was optimized so that highest output is gained per unit feed input. If in addition better feeding, controlled mating and better resale prices at fixed dates were simulated, ROI further increased to 1:2.45, 1:2.69, 1:2.7 and 1:3.15 for four respective grower groups. Those findings show the potential of pork production, if basic measures of improvement are applied. Futureexploration of the environment, including climate, market-season and culture is required before implementing the recommended measures to ensure a sustainable development of a more effective and resource conserving pork production in the future. The two studies have shown that the production of local SME pigs plays an important role in traditional farms in NRNNR but basic constraints are limiting their productivity. However, relatively easy approaches are sufficient for reaching a notable improvement. Also there is a demand for more SME pork on local markets and, if basic constraints have been overcome, pig farmers could turn into more commercial producers and provide pork to local markets. By that, environmentally safe meat can be offered to sensitive consumers while farmers increase their income and lower the risk of external shocks through a more diverse income generating strategy. Buffaloes have been found to be the second important livestock species on NRNNR farms. While they have been a core resource of mixed smallholderfarms in the past, the expansion of rubber tree plantations and agricultural mechanization are reasons for decreased swamp buffalo numbers today. The third study seeks to predict future utilization of buffaloes on different farm types in NRNNR by analyzing the dynamics of its buffalo population and land use changes over time and calculating labor which is required for keeping buffaloes in view of the traction power which can be utilized for field preparation. The use of buffaloes for field work and the recent development of the egional buffalo population were analyzed through interviews with 184 farmers in 2007/2008 and discussions with 62 buffalo keepers in 2009. While pig based farms (PB; n=37) have abandoned buffalo keeping, 11% of the rubber based farms (RB; n=71) and 100% of the livestock-corn based farms (LB; n=76) kept buffaloes in 2008. Herd size was 2.5 ±1.80 (n=84) buffaloes in early 2008 and 2.2 ±1.69 (n=62) in 2009. Field work on own land was the main reason forkeeping buffaloes (87.3%), but lending work buffaloes to neighbors (79.0%) was also important. Other purposes were transport of goods (16.1%), buffalo trade (11.3%) and meat consumption(6.4%). Buffalo care required 6.2 ±3.00 working hours daily, while annual working time of abuffalo was 294 ±216.6 hours. The area ploughed with buffaloes remained constant during the past 10 years despite an expansion of land cropped per farm. Further rapid replacement of buffaloes by tractors is expected in the near future. While the work economy is drastically improved by the use of tractors, buffaloes still can provide cheap work force and serve as buffer for economic shocks on poorer farms. Especially poor farms, which lack alternative assets that could quickly be liquidizedin times of urgent need for cash, should not abandon buffalo keeping. Livestock has been found to be a major part of small mixed farms in NRNNR. The general productivity was low in both analyzed species, buffaloes and pigs. Productivity of pigs can be improved through basic adjustments in feeding, reproductive and hygienic management, and with external support pig production could further be commercialized to provide pork and weaners to local markets and fattening farms. Buffalo production is relatively time intensive, and only will be of importance in the future to very poor farms and such farms that cultivate very small terraces on steep slopes. These should be encouraged to further keep buffaloes. With such measures, livestock production in NRNNR has good chances to stay competitive in the future.

Effects of transformation processes in 'jubraka' agroforestry systems of the Nuba Mountains, Sudan, on nutrient fluxes

Intensification processes in homegardens of the Nuba Mountains, Sudan, raise concerns about strongly positive carbon (C) and nutrient balances which are expected to lead to substantial element losses from these agroecosystems, in particular via soil gaseous emissions. Therefore, this thesis aimed at the quantification of C, nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) input and output fluxes with a special focus on soil gaseous losses, and the calculation of respective element balances. A further focus in this thesis was rainfall, a valuable resource for rain-fed agriculture in the Nuba Mountains. To minimize negative consequences of the high variability of rainfall, risk reducing mechanisms were developed by rain-fed farmers that may lose their efficacy in the course of climate change effects predicted for East Africa. Therefore, the second objective of this study was to examine possible changes in rainfall amounts during the last 60 years and to provide reliable risk and probability statements of rainfall-induced events of agricultural importance to rain-fed farmers in the Nuba Mountains. Soil gaseous emissions of C (in form of CO2) and N (in form of NH3 and N2O) of two traditional and two intensified homegardens were determined with a portable dynamic closed chamber system. For C gaseous emission rates reached their peak at the onset of the rainy season (2,325 g CO2-C ha-1 h-1 in an intensified garden type) and for N during the rainy season (16 g NH3-N ha-1 h-1 and 11.3 g N2O-N ha-1 h-1, in a traditional garden type). Data indicated cumulative annual emissions of 5,893 kg CO2-C ha-1, 37 kg NH3-N ha-1, and 16 kg N2O-N ha-1. For the assessment of the long-term productivity of the two types of homegardens and the identification of pathways of substantial element losses, a C and nutrient budget approach was used. In three traditional and three intensified homegardens observation plots were selected. The following variables were quantified on each plot between June and December in 2010: soil amendments, irrigation, biomass removal, symbiotic N2 fixation, C fixation by photosynthesis, atmospheric wet and dry deposition, leaching and soil gaseous emissions. Annual balances for C and nutrients amounted to -21 kg C ha-1, -70 kg N ha-1, 9 kg P ha-1 and -117 kg K ha-1 in intensified homegardens and to -1,722 kg C ha-1, -167 kg N ha-1, -9 kg P ha-1 and -74 kg K ha-1 in traditional homegardens. For the analysis of rainfall data, the INSTAT+ software allowed to aggregate long-term daily rainfall records from the Kadugli and Rashad weather stations into daily, monthly and annual intervals and to calculate rainfall-induced events of agricultural importance. Subsequently, these calculated values and events were checked for possible monotonic trends by Mann-Kendall tests. Over the period from 1970 to 2009, annual rainfall did not change significantly for either station. However, during this period an increase of low rainfall events coinciding with a decline in the number of medium daily rainfall events was observed in Rashad. Furthermore, the availability of daily rainfall data enabled frequency and conditional probability calculations that showed either no statistically significant changes or trends resulting only in minor changes of probabilities.

Cassava root peel as a replacement for maize in diets for growing pigs: effects on energy and nutrient digestibility, performance and carcass characteristics

Two experiments were conducted to evaluate cassava root peel (CRP) as diet component for fattening pigs. In the first experiment, ten male pigs were used to investigate the nutrient digestibility and the nutritive value of CRP as replacement for maize in the diet at 0 %, 30 %, 40 %, 50 % and 60 %, while supplementing free amino acids (fAA). During two experimental periods, faeces were quantitatively collected and analysed for chemical composition. In the second experiment, 40 pigs received the same diets as in Experiment 1, and daily feed intake and weekly weight changes were recorded. Four pigs per diet were slaughtered at 70 kg body weight to evaluate carcass traits. Digestibility of dry and organic matter, crude protein, acid detergent fibre and gross energy were depressed (p<0.05) at 60 % CRP; digestible energy content (MJ kg^(−1) DM) was 15.4 at 0 % CRP and 12.7 at 60 % CRP. In the second experiment, CRP inclusion had only a small impact on feed intake, weight gain and feed conversion ratio (p>0.05) as well as on the length of the small intestine and the Longissimus dorsi muscle area. The missing correlation of daily weight gain and feed-to-gain ratio up to a CRP inclusion of 40 % indicates that negative effects of CRP on pig growth can be avoided by respecting upper feeding limits. Hence, a combined use of CRP and fAA can reduce feeding costs for small-scale pig farmers in countries where this crop-by product is available in large amounts.

Soil, water and nutrient loss under conventional and organic vegetable production managed in small farms

Agricultural systems with conventional tillage and intensive use of agrochemicals, especially those on high slopes and with shallow soils, have the potential to release pollutants. This study aimed at evaluating the soil, water and nutrient lost via agricultural runoff in large plots (small catchments) under conventional and organic farming of vegetables as well as under forest (control) system in a Cambisol in the Campestre catchment. Samples of runoff were collected biweekly for one year through a Coshocton wheel. The soil and water losses from the conventional farming were 218 and 6 times higher, respectively, than forest. Under organic farming the soil and water losses were 12 and 4 times higher, respectively, than forest. However the soil losses (0.5 to 114 kg ha^(−1) year^(−1)) are considered low in agronomy but environmentally represent a potential source of surface water contamination by runoff associated pollutants. The concentrations and losses of all forms of phosphorus (P) were higher in the conventional system (9.5, 0.9 and 0.3 mg L^(−1) of total P for conventional, organic and forest systems, respectively), while the organic system had the highest concentrations and losses of soluble nitrogen (4.7, 38.6 and 0.4 mg L^(−1) of NO_3-N, respectively). The percentage of bioavailable P was proportionally higher in the organic system (91% of total P lost was as bioavailable P), indicating greater potential for pollution in the short term.

Controlling the transport of an ion: classical and quantum mechanical solutions

The accurate transport of an ion over macroscopic distances represents a challenging control problem due to the different length and time scales that enter and the experimental limitations on the controls that need to be accounted for. Here, we investigate the performance of different control techniques for ion transport in state-of-the-art segmented miniaturized ion traps. We employ numerical optimization of classical trajectories and quantum wavepacket propagation as well as analytical solutions derived from invariant based inverse engineering and geometric optimal control. The applicability of each of the control methods depends on the length and time scales of the transport. Our comprehensive set of tools allows us make a number of observations. We find that accurate shuttling can be performed with operation times below the trap oscillation period. The maximum speed is limited by the maximum acceleration that can be exerted on the ion. When using controls obtained from classical dynamics for wavepacket propagation, wavepacket squeezing is the only quantum effect that comes into play for a large range of trapping parameters. We show that this can be corrected by a compensating force derived from invariant based inverse engineering, without a significant increase in the operation time.

Transport magnetischer Partikel durch maßgeschneiderte magnetische Feldlandschaften zur Anwendung in mikrofluidischen Mischprozessen

Die Miniaturisierung von konventioneller Labor- und Analysetechnik nimmt eine zentrale Rolle im Bereich der allgemeinen Lebenswissenschaften und medizinischen Diagnostik ein. Neuartige und preiswerte Technologieplattformen wie Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC) oder Mikrototalanalysesysteme (µTAS) versprechen insbesondere im Bereich der Individualmedizin einen hohen gesellschaftlichen Nutzen zur frühzeitigen und nichtinvasiven Diagnose krankheitsspezifischer Indikatoren. Durch den patientennahen Einsatz preiswerter und verlässlicher Mikrochips auf Basis hoher Qualitätsstandards entfallen kostspielige und zeitintensive Zentrallaboranalysen, was gleichzeitig Chancen für den globalen Einsatz - speziell in Schwellen- und Entwicklungsländern - bietet. Die technischen Herausforderungen bei der Realisierung moderner LOC-Systeme sind in der kontrollierten und verlässlichen Handhabung kleinster Flüssigkeitsmengen sowie deren diagnostischem Nachweis begründet. In diesem Kontext wird der erfolgreichen Integration eines fernsteuerbaren Transports von biokompatiblen, magnetischen Mikro- und Nanopartikeln eine Schlüsselrolle zugesprochen. Die Ursache hierfür liegt in der vielfältigen Einsetzbarkeit, die durch die einzigartigen Materialeigenschaften begründet sind. Diese reichen von der beschleunigten, aktiven Durchmischung mikrofluidischer Substanzvolumina über die Steigerung der molekularen Interaktionsrate in Biosensoren bis hin zur Isolation und Aufreinigung von krankheitsspezifischen Indikatoren. In der Literatur beschriebene Ansätze basieren auf der dynamischen Transformation eines makroskopischen, zeitabhängigen externen Magnetfelds in eine mikroskopisch veränderliche potentielle Energielandschaft oberhalb magnetisch strukturierter Substrate, woraus eine gerichtete und fernsteuerbare Partikelbewegung resultiert. Zentrale Kriterien, wie die theoretische Modellierung und experimentelle Charakterisierung der magnetischen Feldlandschaft in räumlicher Nähe zur Oberfläche der strukturierten Substrate sowie die theoretische Beschreibung der Durchmischungseffekte, wurden jedoch bislang nicht näher beleuchtet, obwohl diese essentiell für ein detailliertes Verständnis der zu Grunde liegenden Mechanismen und folglich für einen Markteintritt zukünftiger Geräte sind. Im Rahmen der vorgestellten Arbeit wurde daher ein neuartiger Ansatz zur erfolgreichen Integration eines Konzepts zum fernsteuerbaren Transport magnetischer Partikel zur Anwendung in modernen LOC-Systemen unter Verwendung von magnetisch strukturierten Exchange-Bias (EB) Dünnschichtsystemen verfolgt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich das Verfahren der ionenbe-schussinduzierten magnetischen Strukturierung (IBMP) von EB-Systemen zur Herstellung von maßgeschneiderten magnetischen Feldlandschaften (MFL) oberhalb der Substratoberfläche, deren Stärke und räumlicher Verlauf auf Nano- und Mikrometerlängenskalen gezielt über die Veränderung der Materialparameter des EB-Systems via IBMP eingestellt werden kann, eignet. Im Zuge dessen wurden erstmals moderne, experimentelle Verfahrenstechniken (Raster-Hall-Sonden-Mikroskopie und rastermagnetoresistive Mikroskopie) in Kombination mit einem eigens entwickelten theoretischen Modell eingesetzt, um eine Abbildung der MFL in unterschiedlichen Abstandsbereichen zur Substratoberfläche zu realisieren. Basierend auf der quantitativen Kenntnis der MFL wurde ein neuartiges Konzept zum fernsteuerbaren Transport magnetischer Partikel entwickelt, bei dem Partikelgeschwindigkeiten im Bereich von 100 µm/s unter Verwendung von externen Magnetfeldstärken im Bereich weniger Millitesla erzielt werden können, ohne den magnetischen Zustand des Substrats zu modifizieren. Wie aus den Untersuchungen hervorgeht, können zudem die Stärke des externen Magnetfelds, die Stärke und der Gradient der MFL, das magnetfeldinduzierte magnetische Moment der Partikel sowie die Größe und der künstlich veränderliche Abstand der Partikel zur Substratoberfläche als zentrale Einflussgrößen zur quantitativen Modifikation der Partikelgeschwindigkeit genutzt werden. Abschließend wurde erfolgreich ein numerisches Simulationsmodell entwickelt, das die quantitative Studie der aktiven Durchmischung auf Basis des vorgestellten Partikeltransportkonzepts von theoretischer Seite ermöglicht, um so gezielt die geometrischen Gegebenheiten der mikrofluidischen Kanalstrukturen auf einem LOC-System für spezifische Anwendungen anzupassen.

Microbial response to restoration of tantalite mine soils in western Rwanda

Artisanal columbite-tantalite (coltan) mining has had negative effects on the rural economy in the great Lakes region of Africa through labor deficits, degradation and loss of farmland, food insecurity, high cost of living, and reduced traditional export crop production alongside secondary impacts that remotely affect the quality of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and human wellbeing. The situation is multifaceted and calls for a holistic approach for short and long-term mitigation of such negative effects. This study focuses on the effects of mine land restoration on soil microbiological quality in the Gatumba Mining District of western Rwanda. Some coltan mine wastelands were afforested with pine and eucalyptus trees while farmers directly cultivated others due to land scarcity. Farmyard manure (FYM) is the sole fertilizer applied on the wastelands although it is insufficient to achieve the desired crop yields. Despite this, several multi-purpose plants such as Tithonia diversifolia, Markhamia lutea, and Canavalia brasiliensis thrive in the area and could supplement FYM. The potential for these “new” amendments to improve soil microbial properties, particularly in the tantalite mine soils was investigated. The specific objectives of the study were to: (a) evaluate the effects of land use on soil microbial indices of the tantalite mine soils; (b) investigate the restorative effects of organic amendments on a Technosol; and (c) estimate the short-term N and P supply potential of the soil amendments in the soils. Fresh soils (0-20 cm) from an unmined native forest, two mine sites afforested with pine and eucalyptus forests (pine and eucalyptus Technosols), an arable land, and two cultivated Technosols (Kavumu and Kirengo Technosols) were analyzed for the physicochemical properties. Afterwards, a 28-day incubation (22oC) experiment was conducted followed by measurements of mineral N, soil microbial biomass C, N, P, and fungal ergosterol contents using standard methods. This was followed by a 12-week incubation study of the arable soil and the Kavumu Technosol amended with FYM, Canavalia and Tithonia biomass, and Markhamia leaf litter after which soil microbial properties were measured at 2, 8, and 12 weeks of incubation. Finally, two 4-week incubation experiments each were conducted in soils of the six sites to estimate (i) potential mineralizable N using a soil-sand mixture (1:1) amended with Canavalia and goat manure and (ii) P mineralization mixtures (1:1) of soil and anion exchange resins in bicarbonate form amended with Tithonia biomass and goat manure. In study one, afforestation increased soil organic carbon and total N contents in the pine and eucalyptus Technosols by 34-40% and 28-30%, respectively of that in the native forest soil. Consequently, the microbial biomass and activity followed a similar trend where the cultivated Technosols were inferior to the afforested ones. The microbial indices of the mine soils were constrained by soil acidity, dithionite-extractable Al, and low P availability. In study two, the amendments substantially increased C and N mineralization, microbial properties compared with non-amended soils. Canavalia biomass increased CO2 efflux by 340%, net N mineralization by 30-140%, and microbial biomass C and N by 240-600% and 240-380% (P < 0.01), respectively after four weeks of incubation compared with the non-amended soils. Tithonia biomass increased ergosterol content by roughly 240%. The Kavumu Technosol showed a high potential for quick restoration of its soil quality due to its major responses to the measured biological parameters. In study three, Canavalia biomass gave the highest mineralizable N (130 µg g-1 soil, P < 0.01) in the Kavumu Technosol and the lowest in the native forest soil (-20 µg g-1 soil). Conversely, the mineralizable N of goat manure was negative in all soils ranging from -2.5 µg N g-1 to -7.7 µg N g-1 soil except the native forest soil. However, the immobilization of goat manure N in the “cultivated soils” was 30-70% lower than in the “forest soils” signifying an imminent recovery of the amended soils from N immobilization. The mineralization of goat manure P was three-fold that of Tithonia, constituting 61-71% of total P applied. Phosphorus mineralization slightly decreased after four weeks of incubation due to sulfate competition as reflected in a negative correlation, which was steeper in the Tithonia treatment. In conclusion, each amendment used in this research played a unique role in C, N, and P mineralization and contributed substantially to microbial properties in the tantalite mine soils. Interestingly, the “N immobilizers” exhibited potentials for P release and soil organic carbon storage. Consequently, the combined use of the amendments in specific ratios, or co-composting prior to application is recommended to optimize nutrient release, microbial biomass dynamics and soil organic matter accrual. Transport of organic inputs seems more feasible for smallholder farmers who typically manage small field sizes. To reduce acidity in the soils, liming with wood ash was recommended to also improve P availability and enhance soil biological quality, even if it may only be possible on small areas. Further, afforestation with mixed-species of fast-growing eucalyptus and legume or indigenous tree species are suggested to restore tantalite mine wastelands. It is emphasized most of this research was conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, which exclude interaction with environmental variables. Also fine fractions of the amendments were used compared with the usual practice of applying a mixture of predominantly coarser fractions. Therefore, the biological dynamics reported in the studies here may not entirely reflect those of farmers’ field conditions.

Modeling the Transport Sector: The Role of Existing Fuel Taxes in Climate Policy

Existing fuel taxes play a major role in determining the welfare effects of exempting the transportation sector from measures to control greenhouse gases. To study this phenomenon we modify the MIT Emissions Prediction and Policy Analysis (EPPA) model to disaggregate the household transportation sector. This improvement requires an extension of the GTAP data set that underlies the model. The revised and extended facility is then used to compare economic costs of cap-and-trade systems differentiated by sector, focusing on two regions: the USA where the fuel taxes are low, and Europe where the fuel taxes are high. We find that the interplay between carbon policies and pre-existing taxes leads to different results in these regions: in the USA exemption of transport from such a system would increase the welfare cost of achieving a national emissions target, while in Europe such exemptions will correct pre-existing distortions and reduce the cost.

Transport of Sub-micron Aerosols in Bifurcations

The convective-diffusive transport of sub-micron aerosols in an oscillatory laminar flow within a 2-D single bifurcation is studied, using order-of-magnitude analysis and numerical simulation using a commercial software (FEMLAB®). Based on the similarity between momentum and mass transfer equations, various transient mass transport regimes are classified and scaled according to Strouhal and beta numbers. Results show that the mass transfer rate is highest at the carinal ridge and there is a phase-shift in diffusive transport time if the beta number is greater than one. It is also shown that diffusive mass transfer becomes independent of the oscillating outer flow if the Strouhal number is greater than one.