Educación pública universitaria : República Argentina 1998-2008

La educación en la Argentina está articulada bajo criterios sociales establecidos pero que son básicamente arbitrarios y sustentados en supuestos no demostrados que afirman que el conocimiento se construye a partir de ciertos contenidos y no de otros. Dichos criterios no han variado mayormente durante las últimas décadas y siguen utilizándose como plataforma inicial a partir de los cuales se articula la educación posterior del educando. Los sistemas de educación superior en América Latina sufren una crisis a raíz de la creciente internacionalización de las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación e información y de los reclamos de inclusión social de los sectores marginados, entre otras razones. Las tecnologías de compresión digital dan origen a un modelo educativo "en red" caracterizado por un funcionamiento no presencial, mediante el cual se produce la transformación del rol de la Universidad, como centro de descubrimiento y posesión del conocimiento, para convertirse en apenas una intermediaria en la búsqueda del saber y la información. Esta nueva modalidad de educación crece en la medida en que puede cubrir una demanda social de educación superior insatisfecha, conformada básicamente por adultos que trabajan, estudiantes de zonas alejadas de los centros educativos, extranjeros que carecen de opciones educativas y alumnos globalizados. Por ello, la educación virtual nace como una nueva respuesta a viejas demandas. La construcción de una sociedad planetaria y la convivencia del multiculturalismo, además de representar la expresión de sociedades abiertas, que quizás no dispongan de bases comunes de cohesión nacional, debe ser parte de un nuevo proyecto de solidaridad y confraternidad mundial.Resulta sumamente importante que las Universidades de América Latina defiendan su participación como tales en los mercados regionales mediante la adquisición de mayor flexibilidad, actualización y excelencia, para erigirse de esta manera como una opción comparativamente válida. Asimismo, creemos que la educación, entendida como todo el corpus del conocimiento que tiene una persona, no se construye de manera arbitraria sino, por el contrario, de manera selectiva de acuerdo a las posibilidades del educando; y es precisamente sobre la base de esta pormenorizada elección el sustento sobre el cual el alumno llega posteriormente a desarrollos intelectuales superiores. El objetivo del presente trabajo se centra en mostrar la importancia de índole social y política que tienen la flexibilización y la personalización en el currículum de estudios universitarios, al momento de observar el resultado final del ejercicio profesional del graduado. Desde este punto de vista, es fundamental que la elección de los contenidos del plan de estudios de la carrera universitaria estén a cargo del educando, con la dirección de una unidad académica, especialmente en relación con lo que hoy se conoce como "aprendizaje justo a tiempo". Dicho en otras palabras, solamente cuando el educando trasciende ese fundamento institucional e inicial de conocimientos para abrevar en otras fuentes, como las Artes, la Religión, la Filosofía, etc., puede relacionar y comparar conocimientos diferentes entre sí, pero cuya elección obedece fundamentalmente a criterios personales y no meramente institucionales

Epistemología de las ciencias de la información : Una perspectiva no fundacionista

Se propone un análisis de la cientificidad y las pretensiones de conocimiento de las ciencias de la información desde la perspectiva de Richard Rorty. Se presenta la crítica rortyana a la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada, haciendo énfasis en la presunción de que el conocimiento tiene algún tipo de fundamento último, y la presunción de que la filosofía es la encargada de esclarecer este fundamento. Se introduce la propuesta del conductismo epistemológico de Rorty como alternativa al fundacionismo de la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada. Posteriormente se realiza una revisión de diferentes posturas sobre el status científico y la legitimidad epistémica de las ciencias de la información. Se agrupan las posturas revisadas en torno a dos estrategias de fundamentación: la adscripción de las ciencias de la información a algún modelo de cientificidad, o su vinculación con un sistema filosófico general. Se afirma que ambas estrategias presuponen una perspectiva fundacionista, en cuanto buscan ofrecer una fundamentación disciplinar en base a un marco filosófico exterior. A esto se opone el conductismo epistemológico rortyano, según el cual la autoridad epistémica debe explicarse a partir de los contextos específicos de cada comunidad, y no a partir de un fundamento epistémico externo

Educación pública universitaria : República Argentina 1998-2008

La educación en la Argentina está articulada bajo criterios sociales establecidos pero que son básicamente arbitrarios y sustentados en supuestos no demostrados que afirman que el conocimiento se construye a partir de ciertos contenidos y no de otros. Dichos criterios no han variado mayormente durante las últimas décadas y siguen utilizándose como plataforma inicial a partir de los cuales se articula la educación posterior del educando. Los sistemas de educación superior en América Latina sufren una crisis a raíz de la creciente internacionalización de las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación e información y de los reclamos de inclusión social de los sectores marginados, entre otras razones. Las tecnologías de compresión digital dan origen a un modelo educativo "en red" caracterizado por un funcionamiento no presencial, mediante el cual se produce la transformación del rol de la Universidad, como centro de descubrimiento y posesión del conocimiento, para convertirse en apenas una intermediaria en la búsqueda del saber y la información. Esta nueva modalidad de educación crece en la medida en que puede cubrir una demanda social de educación superior insatisfecha, conformada básicamente por adultos que trabajan, estudiantes de zonas alejadas de los centros educativos, extranjeros que carecen de opciones educativas y alumnos globalizados. Por ello, la educación virtual nace como una nueva respuesta a viejas demandas. La construcción de una sociedad planetaria y la convivencia del multiculturalismo, además de representar la expresión de sociedades abiertas, que quizás no dispongan de bases comunes de cohesión nacional, debe ser parte de un nuevo proyecto de solidaridad y confraternidad mundial.Resulta sumamente importante que las Universidades de América Latina defiendan su participación como tales en los mercados regionales mediante la adquisición de mayor flexibilidad, actualización y excelencia, para erigirse de esta manera como una opción comparativamente válida. Asimismo, creemos que la educación, entendida como todo el corpus del conocimiento que tiene una persona, no se construye de manera arbitraria sino, por el contrario, de manera selectiva de acuerdo a las posibilidades del educando; y es precisamente sobre la base de esta pormenorizada elección el sustento sobre el cual el alumno llega posteriormente a desarrollos intelectuales superiores. El objetivo del presente trabajo se centra en mostrar la importancia de índole social y política que tienen la flexibilización y la personalización en el currículum de estudios universitarios, al momento de observar el resultado final del ejercicio profesional del graduado. Desde este punto de vista, es fundamental que la elección de los contenidos del plan de estudios de la carrera universitaria estén a cargo del educando, con la dirección de una unidad académica, especialmente en relación con lo que hoy se conoce como "aprendizaje justo a tiempo". Dicho en otras palabras, solamente cuando el educando trasciende ese fundamento institucional e inicial de conocimientos para abrevar en otras fuentes, como las Artes, la Religión, la Filosofía, etc., puede relacionar y comparar conocimientos diferentes entre sí, pero cuya elección obedece fundamentalmente a criterios personales y no meramente institucionales

La recuperación de información en el siglo XX : Revisión y aplicación de aspectos de la lingüística cuantitativa y la modelización matemática de la información

Esta tesina indaga en el ámbito de las Tecnologías de la Información sobre los diferentes desarrollos realizados en la interpretación automática de la semántica de textos y su relación con los Sistemas de Recuperación de Información. Partiendo de una revisión bibliográfica selectiva se busca sistematizar la documentación estableciendo de manera evolutiva los principales antecedentes y técnicas, sintetizando los conceptos fundamentales y resaltando los aspectos que justifican la elección de unos u otros procedimientos en la resolución de los problemas.

Epistemología de las ciencias de la información : Una perspectiva no fundacionista

Se propone un análisis de la cientificidad y las pretensiones de conocimiento de las ciencias de la información desde la perspectiva de Richard Rorty. Se presenta la crítica rortyana a la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada, haciendo énfasis en la presunción de que el conocimiento tiene algún tipo de fundamento último, y la presunción de que la filosofía es la encargada de esclarecer este fundamento. Se introduce la propuesta del conductismo epistemológico de Rorty como alternativa al fundacionismo de la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada. Posteriormente se realiza una revisión de diferentes posturas sobre el status científico y la legitimidad epistémica de las ciencias de la información. Se agrupan las posturas revisadas en torno a dos estrategias de fundamentación: la adscripción de las ciencias de la información a algún modelo de cientificidad, o su vinculación con un sistema filosófico general. Se afirma que ambas estrategias presuponen una perspectiva fundacionista, en cuanto buscan ofrecer una fundamentación disciplinar en base a un marco filosófico exterior. A esto se opone el conductismo epistemológico rortyano, según el cual la autoridad epistémica debe explicarse a partir de los contextos específicos de cada comunidad, y no a partir de un fundamento epistémico externo

La recuperación de información en el siglo XX : Revisión y aplicación de aspectos de la lingüística cuantitativa y la modelización matemática de la información

Esta tesina indaga en el ámbito de las Tecnologías de la Información sobre los diferentes desarrollos realizados en la interpretación automática de la semántica de textos y su relación con los Sistemas de Recuperación de Información. Partiendo de una revisión bibliográfica selectiva se busca sistematizar la documentación estableciendo de manera evolutiva los principales antecedentes y técnicas, sintetizando los conceptos fundamentales y resaltando los aspectos que justifican la elección de unos u otros procedimientos en la resolución de los problemas.

Epistemología de las ciencias de la información : Una perspectiva no fundacionista

Se propone un análisis de la cientificidad y las pretensiones de conocimiento de las ciencias de la información desde la perspectiva de Richard Rorty. Se presenta la crítica rortyana a la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada, haciendo énfasis en la presunción de que el conocimiento tiene algún tipo de fundamento último, y la presunción de que la filosofía es la encargada de esclarecer este fundamento. Se introduce la propuesta del conductismo epistemológico de Rorty como alternativa al fundacionismo de la filosofía epistemológicamente centrada. Posteriormente se realiza una revisión de diferentes posturas sobre el status científico y la legitimidad epistémica de las ciencias de la información. Se agrupan las posturas revisadas en torno a dos estrategias de fundamentación: la adscripción de las ciencias de la información a algún modelo de cientificidad, o su vinculación con un sistema filosófico general. Se afirma que ambas estrategias presuponen una perspectiva fundacionista, en cuanto buscan ofrecer una fundamentación disciplinar en base a un marco filosófico exterior. A esto se opone el conductismo epistemológico rortyano, según el cual la autoridad epistémica debe explicarse a partir de los contextos específicos de cada comunidad, y no a partir de un fundamento epistémico externo

Educación pública universitaria : República Argentina 1998-2008

La educación en la Argentina está articulada bajo criterios sociales establecidos pero que son básicamente arbitrarios y sustentados en supuestos no demostrados que afirman que el conocimiento se construye a partir de ciertos contenidos y no de otros. Dichos criterios no han variado mayormente durante las últimas décadas y siguen utilizándose como plataforma inicial a partir de los cuales se articula la educación posterior del educando. Los sistemas de educación superior en América Latina sufren una crisis a raíz de la creciente internacionalización de las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación e información y de los reclamos de inclusión social de los sectores marginados, entre otras razones. Las tecnologías de compresión digital dan origen a un modelo educativo "en red" caracterizado por un funcionamiento no presencial, mediante el cual se produce la transformación del rol de la Universidad, como centro de descubrimiento y posesión del conocimiento, para convertirse en apenas una intermediaria en la búsqueda del saber y la información. Esta nueva modalidad de educación crece en la medida en que puede cubrir una demanda social de educación superior insatisfecha, conformada básicamente por adultos que trabajan, estudiantes de zonas alejadas de los centros educativos, extranjeros que carecen de opciones educativas y alumnos globalizados. Por ello, la educación virtual nace como una nueva respuesta a viejas demandas. La construcción de una sociedad planetaria y la convivencia del multiculturalismo, además de representar la expresión de sociedades abiertas, que quizás no dispongan de bases comunes de cohesión nacional, debe ser parte de un nuevo proyecto de solidaridad y confraternidad mundial.Resulta sumamente importante que las Universidades de América Latina defiendan su participación como tales en los mercados regionales mediante la adquisición de mayor flexibilidad, actualización y excelencia, para erigirse de esta manera como una opción comparativamente válida. Asimismo, creemos que la educación, entendida como todo el corpus del conocimiento que tiene una persona, no se construye de manera arbitraria sino, por el contrario, de manera selectiva de acuerdo a las posibilidades del educando; y es precisamente sobre la base de esta pormenorizada elección el sustento sobre el cual el alumno llega posteriormente a desarrollos intelectuales superiores. El objetivo del presente trabajo se centra en mostrar la importancia de índole social y política que tienen la flexibilización y la personalización en el currículum de estudios universitarios, al momento de observar el resultado final del ejercicio profesional del graduado. Desde este punto de vista, es fundamental que la elección de los contenidos del plan de estudios de la carrera universitaria estén a cargo del educando, con la dirección de una unidad académica, especialmente en relación con lo que hoy se conoce como "aprendizaje justo a tiempo". Dicho en otras palabras, solamente cuando el educando trasciende ese fundamento institucional e inicial de conocimientos para abrevar en otras fuentes, como las Artes, la Religión, la Filosofía, etc., puede relacionar y comparar conocimientos diferentes entre sí, pero cuya elección obedece fundamentalmente a criterios personales y no meramente institucionales

Impact on Asian firms of product-related environmental regulations through global supply chains : a study of firms in Malaysia

This paper sheds light on the important role played by global supply chains in the adaptation to product-related environmental regulations imposed by importing countries, with a focus on chemicals management. By utilizing a unique data collected in Penang, Malaysia, we depict the supply chain structures and how differences among firms in participation to global supply chain link to differences in chemical management. We found that firms belonging to a supply chain are in a better position to comply with these regulations because information and requirements are transmitted through global supply chains. In contrast, those firms that are neither exporters nor a part of a global supply chain lack the knowledge and information channels relevant to chemical management in a product.

Las Infraestructuras de Datos Espaciales (IDE) como un recurso educativo TIC . Estrategias de formación y difusión para el profesorado de la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria

Desde mediados de los 90, gracias a las posibilidades de la World Wide Web, se liberó la cartografía de su dependencia del medio físico, posibilitando el acceso y visualización de millones de mapas almacenados en formatos gráficos a través de Internet. En este contexto, el papel de la Información Geográfica (IG) en la vida cotidiana adquirió relevancia en la medida que el acceso a la misma resultaba cada vez más fácil gracias a múltiples herramientas y aplicaciones para distribuir y acercar los mapas en distintos formatos a la sociedad en general. Sin embargo, dado que esa información enseguida pasaba a estar desactualizada, surgió una demanda desde distintos ámbitos (seguridad, medio ambiente transporte, servicios, etc.) y de la sociedad en general para disponer de la información más actual. Como respuesta a esta demanda, surgen las iniciativas denominadas Infraestructuras de Datos Espaciales (IDE). Estas iniciativas, mediante la acción coordinada de un conjunto de tecnologías, estándares, normas y políticas, brindan la posibilidad a los usuarios de acceder, a través de Internet, a IG actualizada producida por instituciones y organismos oficiales, en un marco colaborativo y sustentada en una estructura organizativa. En este contexto, el ámbito educativo no ha permanecido ajeno representando uno de los espacios más propicios para la difusión de las potencialidades y usos de las IDE. En esta tesis se propone la utilización de las IDE en el contexto educativo, específicamente en la Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO). Utilizar las IDE en el contexto educativo implica asignarle un papel en el proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje y en el marco de esta tesis se presentan los fundamentos teóricos que permiten afirmar que las IDE son un re-curso educativo que responde a las características de las Tecnologías de la Información y la Comunicación (TIC). Esto se explicita a través de un concepto más amplio que hemos denominado “recurso educativo TIC”. En este contexto se analizan las posibilidades que ofrece las IDE para alcanzar los objetivos de aprendizaje de asignaturas de la ESO relacionadas con IG y se identifican contenidos susceptibles de ser abordados utilizándolas. Por otra parte, atendiendo al modelo educativo del aprendizaje basado en competencias, se exponen las posibilidades y potencialidades que ofrecen las IDE para desarrollar la competencia digital. Una vez planteado el marco teórico se desarrollaron dos estrategias de formación y difusión de las IDE orientadas al profesorado de la ESO. En primer lugar, utilizando el Modelo de Diseño Instruccional ADDIE, se diseñaron, desarrollaron, implementaron y evaluaron tres cursos e-learning para el profesorado de ESO de las asignaturas Ciencias Sociales, Ciencias de la Naturaleza y Tecnología. En segundo lugar, con objetivo de complementar los resultados obtenidos de los cursos e-learning, se realizó una actividad en dos Institutos de Educación Secundaria orientada a difundir las IDE. La puesta en práctica de estas estrategias ofreció al profesorado la información necesaria sobre qué son las IDE y proporcionó ejemplos concretos de uso de las mismas en su asignatura, permitiéndoles disponer de los conocimientos e información para emitir una valoración sobre las posibilidades que ofrecen las IDE como un recurso educativo TIC. Since about the middle of the 1990 decade, owing to the potential of the World Wide Web, cartography freed itself from its dependence on its physical support, enabling the access and visualisation of millions of maps stored in graphical formats through the Internet. In this context, the role of Geographic Information (GI) in daily life became relevant in as much as its access turned out to be ever easier due to multiple tools and applications to distribute and bring maps in different formats closer to society in general. Yet, since the information available often became outdated, a demand for updated information arose from different specific fields (security, environment, transport, services, etc.) and from the general public. As a response to this demand, the so-called Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) initiatives arose which, through the coordinated action of a set of technologies, stan-dards, and policies, enabled users to access updated GI created by organisations and official institutions, through the Internet, within a cooperative framework and an organisational structure. In this context the educational world has not remained aloof, since it represented one of the most propitious scope for the dissemination of the potentials and uses of SDI. In this thesis the utilization of SDI in the educational context is proposed, specifically in the Spanish Compulsory Secondary Education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria – ESO). This utilization implies assigning SDI a role in the teaching-learning process; here the theo-retical foundation is presented which allows asserting that SDI is an educational resource fitting in with the characteristics of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICT). This is made explicit by means of a broader concept we have called “ICT educa-tional resource”. The possibilities offered by SDI to reach the objective of learning ESO subjects related to GI are analyzed, and contents apt to be addressed by using them are identified. On the other hand, attending to the educational model of learning based on competences, the possibilities and potentials the SDI offer to develop the digital compe-tence are exposed. After having set forth the theoretical frame, two strategies of training and dissemination of SDI were developed, oriented to the ESO teaching staff. First, using the ADDIE Instruc-tional Design Model, three learning courses were designed, developed, implemented and evaluated for the ESO teaching staff in the subjects of Social Sciences, Natural Sciences and Technology. In the second place, with the purpose of supplementing the results ob-tained from the e-learning courses, an activity was carried out in two High Schools, ori-ented to disseminate the SDI. The implementation of these strategies offered the teaching staff the needed information concerning the SDI and provided specific instances of utilisa-tion thereof in their subject, thus enabling them to acquire the knowledge and information to issue an assessment of the possibilities the SDI offer as an ICT educational resource

Leadership in executive women from the viewpoint of project management competences: a study in the region of Madrid / Liderazgo de la mujer directiva desde las competencias para la dirección de proyectos: estudio en la región de Madrid

Today's knowledge society is creating increasingly competitive environments in which cognitive factors, creativity, knowledge and information determine the success of organizations. In this context the exercise of management and leadership is essential to achieve objectives, goals and relationships. Both concepts have been historically associated with the male domain because of the underrepresentation of women in managerial positions. However, the increasing participation of women in the workplace has led to the development of an extensive literature on the possible existence of differences between the styles of male and female leadership, although it has not been addressed from the analysis of competences associated with each sex. Through a participatory process the abilities and skills associated with women managers are analyzed, the differences in leadership styles and the barriers that still exist for the promotion of women into management positions. The results indicate that women particularly value the skills associated with human relationships, the female leadership style tends to be transformational and that there are still barriers to their advancement to management positions.

Uniformly Reweighted Belief Propagation: A Factor Graph Approach

Tree-reweighted belief propagation is a message passing method that has certain advantages compared to traditional belief propagation (BP). However, it fails to outperform BP in a consistent manner, does not lend itself well to distributed implementation, and has not been applied to distributions with higher-order interactions. We propose a method called uniformly-reweighted belief propagation that mitigates these drawbacks. After having shown in previous works that this method can substantially outperform BP in distributed inference with pairwise interaction models, in this paper we extend it to higher-order interactions and apply it to LDPC decoding, leading performance gains over BP.

Introducing Nuclear Energy to High-School Students: The Spanish Young Generation in Nuclear (Jóvenes Nucleares) Lectures

One of the main goals of Spanish Young Generation (JJNN) is to spread knowledge about nuclear energy, not only pointing out its advantages and its role in our society, but also trying to correct some of the ideas that are due to the biased information and to the lack of knowledge. With this goal in mind, lectures were given in several high schools, aimed at students ranging from 14 to 18 years old. This paper explains the experience accumulated during those talks and the conclusions that can be drawn, so as to better focus the communication about nuclear energy, especially the one aimed at a young public. In order to evaluate the degree of knowledge and information on a specific topic of a given group of individuals, statistical methods must be used. At the beginning of each lecture (and sometimes at the end, in order to evaluate the impact of the talk) the students were submitted to a short survey conducted by Spanish Young Generation. It consisted in eight questions, dealing with the relation between the main environmental issues (global warming, acid rain, radioactive waste…) and nuclear energy. The answers can be surprising, especially for professionals of the nuclear field who, since they are so familiar with this topic, often forget that this is just the case of a minority of people. A better knowledge of the degree of information of a given group enables to focus and personalize the communication. Another communication tool is the direct contact with students: it starts with their questions, which can then lead to a small debate. If the surveys inform about the topics they are unaware of, the direct exchange with them enables to find the most effective way to provide them the information. Of course, it depends a lot on the public attending the talk (age, background…) and on the debate following the talk: a good communication, adapted to the public, is necessary. Therefore, the outcome of the performed exercise is that Spanish teenagers have still a lack of knowledge about nuclear energy. We can learn that items that are evident for nuclear young professionals are unknown for high school teenagers

Two way clustering of Microarray Data using a Hybrid Approach

The Microarray technique is rather powerful, as it allows to test up thousands of genes at a time, but this produces an overwhelming set of data files containing huge amounts of data, which is quite difficult to pre-process, separate, classify and correlate for interesting conclusions to be extracted. Modern machine learning, data mining and clustering techniques based on information theory, are needed to read and interpret the information contents buried in those large data sets. Independent Component Analysis method can be used to correct the data affected by corruption processes or to filter the uncorrectable one and then clustering methods can group similar genes or classify samples. In this paper a hybrid approach is used to obtain a two way unsupervised clustering for a corrected microarray data.

OntoTag - A Linguistic and Ontological Annotation Model Suitable for the Semantic Web

OntoTag - A Linguistic and Ontological Annotation Model Suitable for the Semantic Web 1. INTRODUCTION. LINGUISTIC TOOLS AND ANNOTATIONS: THEIR LIGHTS AND SHADOWS Computational Linguistics is already a consolidated research area. It builds upon the results of other two major ones, namely Linguistics and Computer Science and Engineering, and it aims at developing computational models of human language (or natural language, as it is termed in this area). Possibly, its most well-known applications are the different tools developed so far for processing human language, such as machine translation systems and speech recognizers or dictation programs. These tools for processing human language are commonly referred to as linguistic tools. Apart from the examples mentioned above, there are also other types of linguistic tools that perhaps are not so well-known, but on which most of the other applications of Computational Linguistics are built. These other types of linguistic tools comprise POS taggers, natural language parsers and semantic taggers, amongst others. All of them can be termed linguistic annotation tools. Linguistic annotation tools are important assets. In fact, POS and semantic taggers (and, to a lesser extent, also natural language parsers) have become critical resources for the computer applications that process natural language. Hence, any computer application that has to analyse a text automatically and ‘intelligently’ will include at least a module for POS tagging. The more an application needs to ‘understand’ the meaning of the text it processes, the more linguistic tools and/or modules it will incorporate and integrate. However, linguistic annotation tools have still some limitations, which can be summarised as follows: 1. Normally, they perform annotations only at a certain linguistic level (that is, Morphology, Syntax, Semantics, etc.). 2. They usually introduce a certain rate of errors and ambiguities when tagging. This error rate ranges from 10 percent up to 50 percent of the units annotated for unrestricted, general texts. 3. Their annotations are most frequently formulated in terms of an annotation schema designed and implemented ad hoc. A priori, it seems that the interoperation and the integration of several linguistic tools into an appropriate software architecture could most likely solve the limitations stated in (1). Besides, integrating several linguistic annotation tools and making them interoperate could also minimise the limitation stated in (2). Nevertheless, in the latter case, all these tools should produce annotations for a common level, which would have to be combined in order to correct their corresponding errors and inaccuracies. Yet, the limitation stated in (3) prevents both types of integration and interoperation from being easily achieved. In addition, most high-level annotation tools rely on other lower-level annotation tools and their outputs to generate their own ones. For example, sense-tagging tools (operating at the semantic level) often use POS taggers (operating at a lower level, i.e., the morphosyntactic) to identify the grammatical category of the word or lexical unit they are annotating. Accordingly, if a faulty or inaccurate low-level annotation tool is to be used by other higher-level one in its process, the errors and inaccuracies of the former should be minimised in advance. Otherwise, these errors and inaccuracies would be transferred to (and even magnified in) the annotations of the high-level annotation tool. Therefore, it would be quite useful to find a way to (i) correct or, at least, reduce the errors and the inaccuracies of lower-level linguistic tools; (ii) unify the annotation schemas of different linguistic annotation tools or, more generally speaking, make these tools (as well as their annotations) interoperate. Clearly, solving (i) and (ii) should ease the automatic annotation of web pages by means of linguistic tools, and their transformation into Semantic Web pages (Berners-Lee, Hendler and Lassila, 2001). Yet, as stated above, (ii) is a type of interoperability problem. There again, ontologies (Gruber, 1993; Borst, 1997) have been successfully applied thus far to solve several interoperability problems. Hence, ontologies should help solve also the problems and limitations of linguistic annotation tools aforementioned. Thus, to summarise, the main aim of the present work was to combine somehow these separated approaches, mechanisms and tools for annotation from Linguistics and Ontological Engineering (and the Semantic Web) in a sort of hybrid (linguistic and ontological) annotation model, suitable for both areas. This hybrid (semantic) annotation model should (a) benefit from the advances, models, techniques, mechanisms and tools of these two areas; (b) minimise (and even solve, when possible) some of the problems found in each of them; and (c) be suitable for the Semantic Web. The concrete goals that helped attain this aim are presented in the following section. 2. GOALS OF THE PRESENT WORK As mentioned above, the main goal of this work was to specify a hybrid (that is, linguistically-motivated and ontology-based) model of annotation suitable for the Semantic Web (i.e. it had to produce a semantic annotation of web page contents). This entailed that the tags included in the annotations of the model had to (1) represent linguistic concepts (or linguistic categories, as they are termed in ISO/DCR (2008)), in order for this model to be linguistically-motivated; (2) be ontological terms (i.e., use an ontological vocabulary), in order for the model to be ontology-based; and (3) be structured (linked) as a collection of ontology-based triples, as in the usual Semantic Web languages (namely RDF(S) and OWL), in order for the model to be considered suitable for the Semantic Web. Besides, to be useful for the Semantic Web, this model should provide a way to automate the annotation of web pages. As for the present work, this requirement involved reusing the linguistic annotation tools purchased by the OEG research group (http://www.oeg-upm.net), but solving beforehand (or, at least, minimising) some of their limitations. Therefore, this model had to minimise these limitations by means of the integration of several linguistic annotation tools into a common architecture. Since this integration required the interoperation of tools and their annotations, ontologies were proposed as the main technological component to make them effectively interoperate. From the very beginning, it seemed that the formalisation of the elements and the knowledge underlying linguistic annotations within an appropriate set of ontologies would be a great step forward towards the formulation of such a model (henceforth referred to as OntoTag). Obviously, first, to combine the results of the linguistic annotation tools that operated at the same level, their annotation schemas had to be unified (or, preferably, standardised) in advance. This entailed the unification (id. standardisation) of their tags (both their representation and their meaning), and their format or syntax. Second, to merge the results of the linguistic annotation tools operating at different levels, their respective annotation schemas had to be (a) made interoperable and (b) integrated. And third, in order for the resulting annotations to suit the Semantic Web, they had to be specified by means of an ontology-based vocabulary, and structured by means of ontology-based triples, as hinted above. Therefore, a new annotation scheme had to be devised, based both on ontologies and on this type of triples, which allowed for the combination and the integration of the annotations of any set of linguistic annotation tools. This annotation scheme was considered a fundamental part of the model proposed here, and its development was, accordingly, another major objective of the present work. All these goals, aims and objectives could be re-stated more clearly as follows: Goal 1: Development of a set of ontologies for the formalisation of the linguistic knowledge relating linguistic annotation. Sub-goal 1.1: Ontological formalisation of the EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) de facto standards for morphosyntactic and syntactic annotation, in a way that helps respect the triple structure recommended for annotations in these works (which is isomorphic to the triple structures used in the context of the Semantic Web). Sub-goal 1.2: Incorporation into this preliminary ontological formalisation of other existing standards and standard proposals relating the levels mentioned above, such as those currently under development within ISO/TC 37 (the ISO Technical Committee dealing with Terminology, which deals also with linguistic resources and annotations). Sub-goal 1.3: Generalisation and extension of the recommendations in EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) and ISO/TC 37 to the semantic level, for which no ISO/TC 37 standards have been developed yet. Sub-goal 1.4: Ontological formalisation of the generalisations and/or extensions obtained in the previous sub-goal as generalisations and/or extensions of the corresponding ontology (or ontologies). Sub-goal 1.5: Ontological formalisation of the knowledge required to link, combine and unite the knowledge represented in the previously developed ontology (or ontologies). Goal 2: Development of OntoTag’s annotation scheme, a standard-based abstract scheme for the hybrid (linguistically-motivated and ontological-based) annotation of texts. Sub-goal 2.1: Development of the standard-based morphosyntactic annotation level of OntoTag’s scheme. This level should include, and possibly extend, the recommendations of EAGLES (1996a) and also the recommendations included in the ISO/MAF (2008) standard draft. Sub-goal 2.2: Development of the standard-based syntactic annotation level of the hybrid abstract scheme. This level should include, and possibly extend, the recommendations of EAGLES (1996b) and the ISO/SynAF (2010) standard draft. Sub-goal 2.3: Development of the standard-based semantic annotation level of OntoTag’s (abstract) scheme. Sub-goal 2.4: Development of the mechanisms for a convenient integration of the three annotation levels already mentioned. These mechanisms should take into account the recommendations included in the ISO/LAF (2009) standard draft. Goal 3: Design of OntoTag’s (abstract) annotation architecture, an abstract architecture for the hybrid (semantic) annotation of texts (i) that facilitates the integration and interoperation of different linguistic annotation tools, and (ii) whose results comply with OntoTag’s annotation scheme. Sub-goal 3.1: Specification of the decanting processes that allow for the classification and separation, according to their corresponding levels, of the results of the linguistic tools annotating at several different levels. Sub-goal 3.2: Specification of the standardisation processes that allow (a) complying with the standardisation requirements of OntoTag’s annotation scheme, as well as (b) combining the results of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation. Sub-goal 3.3: Specification of the merging processes that allow for the combination of the output annotations and the interoperation of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation. Sub-goal 3.4: Specification of the merge processes that allow for the integration of the results and the interoperation of those tools performing their annotations at different levels. Goal 4: Generation of OntoTagger’s schema, a concrete instance of OntoTag’s abstract scheme for a concrete set of linguistic annotations. These linguistic annotations result from the tools and the resources available in the research group, namely • Bitext’s DataLexica (http://www.bitext.com/EN/datalexica.asp), • LACELL’s (POS) tagger (http://www.um.es/grupos/grupo-lacell/quees.php), • Connexor’s FDG (http://www.connexor.eu/technology/machinese/glossary/fdg/), and • EuroWordNet (Vossen et al., 1998). This schema should help evaluate OntoTag’s underlying hypotheses, stated below. Consequently, it should implement, at least, those levels of the abstract scheme dealing with the annotations of the set of tools considered in this implementation. This includes the morphosyntactic, the syntactic and the semantic levels. Goal 5: Implementation of OntoTagger’s configuration, a concrete instance of OntoTag’s abstract architecture for this set of linguistic tools and annotations. This configuration (1) had to use the schema generated in the previous goal; and (2) should help support or refute the hypotheses of this work as well (see the next section). Sub-goal 5.1: Implementation of the decanting processes that facilitate the classification and separation of the results of those linguistic resources that provide annotations at several different levels (on the one hand, LACELL’s tagger operates at the morphosyntactic level and, minimally, also at the semantic level; on the other hand, FDG operates at the morphosyntactic and the syntactic levels and, minimally, at the semantic level as well). Sub-goal 5.2: Implementation of the standardisation processes that allow (i) specifying the results of those linguistic tools that share some level of annotation according to the requirements of OntoTagger’s schema, as well as (ii) combining these shared level results. In particular, all the tools selected perform morphosyntactic annotations and they had to be conveniently combined by means of these processes. Sub-goal 5.3: Implementation of the merging processes that allow for the combination (and possibly the improvement) of the annotations and the interoperation of the tools that share some level of annotation (in particular, those relating the morphosyntactic level, as in the previous sub-goal). Sub-goal 5.4: Implementation of the merging processes that allow for the integration of the different standardised and combined annotations aforementioned, relating all the levels considered. Sub-goal 5.5: Improvement of the semantic level of this configuration by adding a named entity recognition, (sub-)classification and annotation subsystem, which also uses the named entities annotated to populate a domain ontology, in order to provide a concrete application of the present work in the two areas involved (the Semantic Web and Corpus Linguistics). 3. MAIN RESULTS: ASSESSMENT OF ONTOTAG’S UNDERLYING HYPOTHESES The model developed in the present thesis tries to shed some light on (i) whether linguistic annotation tools can effectively interoperate; (ii) whether their results can be combined and integrated; and, if they can, (iii) how they can, respectively, interoperate and be combined and integrated. Accordingly, several hypotheses had to be supported (or rejected) by the development of the OntoTag model and OntoTagger (its implementation). The hypotheses underlying OntoTag are surveyed below. Only one of the hypotheses (H.6) was rejected; the other five could be confirmed. H.1 The annotations of different levels (or layers) can be integrated into a sort of overall, comprehensive, multilayer and multilevel annotation, so that their elements can complement and refer to each other. • CONFIRMED by the development of: o OntoTag’s annotation scheme, o OntoTag’s annotation architecture, o OntoTagger’s (XML, RDF, OWL) annotation schemas, o OntoTagger’s configuration. H.2 Tool-dependent annotations can be mapped onto a sort of tool-independent annotations and, thus, can be standardised. • CONFIRMED by means of the standardisation phase incorporated into OntoTag and OntoTagger for the annotations yielded by the tools. H.3 Standardisation should ease: H.3.1: The interoperation of linguistic tools. H.3.2: The comparison, combination (at the same level and layer) and integration (at different levels or layers) of annotations. • H.3 was CONFIRMED by means of the development of OntoTagger’s ontology-based configuration: o Interoperation, comparison, combination and integration of the annotations of three different linguistic tools (Connexor’s FDG, Bitext’s DataLexica and LACELL’s tagger); o Integration of EuroWordNet-based, domain-ontology-based and named entity annotations at the semantic level. o Integration of morphosyntactic, syntactic and semantic annotations. H.4 Ontologies and Semantic Web technologies (can) play a crucial role in the standardisation of linguistic annotations, by providing consensual vocabularies and standardised formats for annotation (e.g., RDF triples). • CONFIRMED by means of the development of OntoTagger’s RDF-triple-based annotation schemas. H.5 The rate of errors introduced by a linguistic tool at a given level, when annotating, can be reduced automatically by contrasting and combining its results with the ones coming from other tools, operating at the same level. However, these other tools might be built following a different technological (stochastic vs. rule-based, for example) or theoretical (dependency vs. HPS-grammar-based, for instance) approach. • CONFIRMED by the results yielded by the evaluation of OntoTagger. H.6 Each linguistic level can be managed and annotated independently. • REJECTED: OntoTagger’s experiments and the dependencies observed among the morphosyntactic annotations, and between them and the syntactic annotations. In fact, Hypothesis H.6 was already rejected when OntoTag’s ontologies were developed. We observed then that several linguistic units stand on an interface between levels, belonging thereby to both of them (such as morphosyntactic units, which belong to both the morphological level and the syntactic level). Therefore, the annotations of these levels overlap and cannot be handled independently when merged into a unique multileveled annotation. 4. OTHER MAIN RESULTS AND CONTRIBUTIONS First, interoperability is a hot topic for both the linguistic annotation community and the whole Computer Science field. The specification (and implementation) of OntoTag’s architecture for the combination and integration of linguistic (annotation) tools and annotations by means of ontologies shows a way to make these different linguistic annotation tools and annotations interoperate in practice. Second, as mentioned above, the elements involved in linguistic annotation were formalised in a set (or network) of ontologies (OntoTag’s linguistic ontologies). • On the one hand, OntoTag’s network of ontologies consists of − The Linguistic Unit Ontology (LUO), which includes a mostly hierarchical formalisation of the different types of linguistic elements (i.e., units) identifiable in a written text; − The Linguistic Attribute Ontology (LAO), which includes also a mostly hierarchical formalisation of the different types of features that characterise the linguistic units included in the LUO; − The Linguistic Value Ontology (LVO), which includes the corresponding formalisation of the different values that the attributes in the LAO can take; − The OIO (OntoTag’s Integration Ontology), which  Includes the knowledge required to link, combine and unite the knowledge represented in the LUO, the LAO and the LVO;  Can be viewed as a knowledge representation ontology that describes the most elementary vocabulary used in the area of annotation. • On the other hand, OntoTag’s ontologies incorporate the knowledge included in the different standards and recommendations for linguistic annotation released so far, such as those developed within the EAGLES and the SIMPLE European projects or by the ISO/TC 37 committee: − As far as morphosyntactic annotations are concerned, OntoTag’s ontologies formalise the terms in the EAGLES (1996a) recommendations and their corresponding terms within the ISO Morphosyntactic Annotation Framework (ISO/MAF, 2008) standard; − As for syntactic annotations, OntoTag’s ontologies incorporate the terms in the EAGLES (1996b) recommendations and their corresponding terms within the ISO Syntactic Annotation Framework (ISO/SynAF, 2010) standard draft; − Regarding semantic annotations, OntoTag’s ontologies generalise and extend the recommendations in EAGLES (1996a; 1996b) and, since no stable standards or standard drafts have been released for semantic annotation by ISO/TC 37 yet, they incorporate the terms in SIMPLE (2000) instead; − The terms coming from all these recommendations and standards were supplemented by those within the ISO Data Category Registry (ISO/DCR, 2008) and also of the ISO Linguistic Annotation Framework (ISO/LAF, 2009) standard draft when developing OntoTag’s ontologies. Third, we showed that the combination of the results of tools annotating at the same level can yield better results (both in precision and in recall) than each tool separately. In particular, 1. OntoTagger clearly outperformed two of the tools integrated into its configuration, namely DataLexica and FDG in all the combination sub-phases in which they overlapped (i.e. POS tagging, lemma annotation and morphological feature annotation). As far as the remaining tool is concerned, i.e. LACELL’s tagger, it was also outperformed by OntoTagger in POS tagging and lemma annotation, and it did not behave better than OntoTagger in the morphological feature annotation layer. 2. As an immediate result, this implies that a) This type of combination architecture configurations can be applied in order to improve significantly the accuracy of linguistic annotations; and b) Concerning the morphosyntactic level, this could be regarded as a way of constructing more robust and more accurate POS tagging systems. Fourth, Semantic Web annotations are usually performed by humans or else by machine learning systems. Both of them leave much to be desired: the former, with respect to their annotation rate; the latter, with respect to their (average) precision and recall. In this work, we showed how linguistic tools can be wrapped in order to annotate automatically Semantic Web pages using ontologies. This entails their fast, robust and accurate semantic annotation. As a way of example, as mentioned in Sub-goal 5.5, we developed a particular OntoTagger module for the recognition, classification and labelling of named entities, according to the MUC and ACE tagsets (Chinchor, 1997; Doddington et al., 2004). These tagsets were further specified by means of a domain ontology, namely the Cinema Named Entities Ontology (CNEO). This module was applied to the automatic annotation of ten different web pages containing cinema reviews (that is, around 5000 words). In addition, the named entities annotated with this module were also labelled as instances (or individuals) of the classes included in the CNEO and, then, were used to populate this domain ontology. • The statistical results obtained from the evaluation of this particular module of OntoTagger can be summarised as follows. On the one hand, as far as recall (R) is concerned, (R.1) the lowest value was 76,40% (for file 7); (R.2) the highest value was 97, 50% (for file 3); and (R.3) the average value was 88,73%. On the other hand, as far as the precision rate (P) is concerned, (P.1) its minimum was 93,75% (for file 4); (R.2) its maximum was 100% (for files 1, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 10); and (R.3) its average value was 98,99%. • These results, which apply to the tasks of named entity annotation and ontology population, are extraordinary good for both of them. They can be explained on the basis of the high accuracy of the annotations provided by OntoTagger at the lower levels (mainly at the morphosyntactic level). However, they should be conveniently qualified, since they might be too domain- and/or language-dependent. It should be further experimented how our approach works in a different domain or a different language, such as French, English, or German. • In any case, the results of this application of Human Language Technologies to Ontology Population (and, accordingly, to Ontological Engineering) seem very promising and encouraging in order for these two areas to collaborate and complement each other in the area of semantic annotation. Fifth, as shown in the State of the Art of this work, there are different approaches and models for the semantic annotation of texts, but all of them focus on a particular view of the semantic level. Clearly, all these approaches and models should be integrated in order to bear a coherent and joint semantic annotation level. OntoTag shows how (i) these semantic annotation layers could be integrated together; and (ii) they could be integrated with the annotations associated to other annotation levels. Sixth, we identified some recommendations, best practices and lessons learned for annotation standardisation, interoperation and merge. They show how standardisation (via ontologies, in this case) enables the combination, integration and interoperation of different linguistic tools and their annotations into a multilayered (or multileveled) linguistic annotation, which is one of the hot topics in the area of Linguistic Annotation. And last but not least, OntoTag’s annotation scheme and OntoTagger’s annotation schemas show a way to formalise and annotate coherently and uniformly the different units and features associated to the different levels and layers of linguistic annotation. This is a great scientific step ahead towards the global standardisation of this area, which is the aim of ISO/TC 37 (in particular, Subcommittee 4, dealing with the standardisation of linguistic annotations and resources).