Environmental law and the economic impact on Australian firms

In response to international awareness of environmental issues and the inadequacies of common law actions, legislation has been enacted by Australian governments to facilitate environmental protection. The Environmental Protection Act 1994 (Qld) and accompanying Environmental Protection (Interim) Regulation 1995 (Qld) is one example of government response to mounting public pressure to legislate for the environment. Investigation into the operation of the legislation exposes the costs faced by Australian firms in its application. The legislation identifies a number of environmentally relevant activities and imposes licensing and reporting requirements on firms undertaking such activities. In view of these legislative requirements and the increasing public awareness of environmental issues over the last decade in Australia, it could be expected that firms undertaking environmentally sensitive activities will place greater importance on the management of environmental issues. If so, the greater prominence placed on environmental management may be reflected in disclosures made by the firm to its shareholders and other interested parties. This article investigates the type and extent of costs currently imposed by the body of environmental laws in Australia with the discussion primarily focusing upon costs imposed due to the operation of environmental legislation in Queensland. Further, the article reports empirical analysis of management response to environmental issues where firms are undertaking environmentally sensitive activities.

Syntaxin 6 and Vti1b form a novel SNARE complex, which is upregulated in activated macrophages to facilitate exocytosis of TNF.

A key function of activated macrophages is to secrete proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF; however, the intracellular pathway and machinery responsible for cytokine trafficking and secretion is largely undefined. Here we show that individual SNARE proteins involved in vesicle docking and fusion are regulated at both gene and protein expression upon stimulation with the bacterial cell wall component lipopolysaccharide. Focusing on two intracellular SNARE proteins, Vti1b and syntaxin 6 (Stx6), we show that they are up-regulated in conjunction with increasing cytokine secretion in activated macrophages and that their levels are selectively titrated to accommodate the volume and timing of post-Golgi cytokine trafficking. In macrophages, Vti1b and syntaxin 6 are localized on intracellular membranes and are present on isolated Golgi membranes and on Golgi-derived TNF� vesicles budded in vitro. By immunoprecipitation, we find that Vti1b and syntaxin 6 interact to form a novel intracellular Q-SNARE complex. Functional studies using overexpression of full-length and truncated proteins show that both Vti1b and syntaxin 6 function and have rate-limiting roles in TNF� trafficking and secretion. This study shows how macrophages have uniquely adapted a novel Golgi-associated SNARE complex to accommodate their requirement for increased cytokine secretion.

The evolutionary history of cockatoos (Aves: Psittaciformes: Cacatuidae)

Cockatoos are the distinctive family Cacatuidae, a major lineage of the order of parrots (Psittaciformes) and distributed throughout the Australasian region of the world. However, the evolutionary history of cockatoos is not well understood. We investigated the phylogeny of cockatoos based on three mitochondrial and three nuclear DNA genes obtained from 16 of 21 species of Cacatuidae. In addition, five novel mitochondrial genomes were used to estimate time of divergence and our estimates indicate Cacatuidae diverged from Psittacidae approximately 40.7 million years ago (95% CI 51.6–30.3 Ma) during the Eocene. Our data shows Cacatuidae began to diversify approximately 27.9 Ma (95% CI 38.1–18.3 Ma) during the Oligocene. The early to middle Miocene (20–10 Ma) was a significant period in the evolution of modern Australian environments and vegetation, in which a transformation from mainly mesic to xeric habitats (e.g., fire-adapted sclerophyll vegetation and grasslands) occurred. We hypothesize that this environmental transformation was a driving force behind the diversification of cockatoos. A detailed multi-locus molecular phylogeny enabled us to resolve the phylogenetic placements of the Palm Cockatoo (Probosciger aterrimus), Galah (Eolophus roseicapillus), Gang-gang Cockatoo (Callocephalon fimbriatum) and Cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus), which have historically been difficult to place within Cacatuidae. When the molecular evidence is analysed in concert with morphology, it is clear that many of the cockatoo species’ diagnostic phenotypic traits such as plumage colour, body size, wing shape and bill morphology have evolved in parallel or convergently across lineages.

Moisture uptake and tensile properties of starch-sugar cane fibre films

THERE is an increasing need for biodegradable plastics because they are environmentally friendly and can replace petroleum-based non-degradable plastics which pollute the environment. Starch-derived films reinforced with sugar cane bagasse fibre, which are biodegradable, have been prepared and characterised by gravimetric analysis for moisture uptake, X-ray powder diffraction for crystallinity, and tensile testing for mechanical properties. Results have shown that the addition of bagasse fibre (5 wt%, 10 wt% or 20 wt%) to either (modified) potato starch (Soluble starch) or hydroxypropylated maize starch reduced moisture uptake by up to 30% at 58% relative humidity (RH). Also, the tensile strength and the Young’s Modulus increased up to 63% and 80% respectively, with the maximum value obtained with 5 wt% fibre at 58% RH. However, the tensile strain of the films significantly decreased by up to 84%. The results have been explained based on the crystallinity of the films and the intrinsic properties of starch and bagasse fibres.

Development of a 3D culture system to study the skeletal metastasis of prostate cancer

In the cancer research field, most in vitro studies still rely on two-dimensional (2D) cultures. However, the trend is rapidly shifting towards using a three-dimensional (3D) culture system. This is because 3D models better recapitulate the microenvironment of cells, and therefore, yield cellular and molecular responses that more accurately describe the pathophysiology of cancer. By adopting technology platforms established by the tissue engineering discipline, it is now possible to grow cancer cells in extracellular matrix (ECM)-like environments and dictate the biophysical and biochemical properties of the matrix. In addition, 3D models can be modified to recapitulate different stages of cancer progression for instance from the initial development of tumor to metastasis. Inevitably, to recapitulate a heterotypic condition, comprising more than one cell type, it requires a more complex 3D model. To date, 3D models that are available for studying the prostate cancer (CaP)-bone interactions are still lacking. Therefore, the aim of this study is to establish a co-culture model that allows investigation of direct and indirect CaP-bone interactions. Prior to that, 3D polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogel cultures for CaP cells were first developed and growth conditions were optimised. Characterization of the 3D hydrogel cultures show that LNCaP cells form a multicellular mass that resembles avascular tumor. In comparison to 2D cultures, besides the difference in cell morphology, the response of LNCaP cells to the androgen analogue (R1881) stimulation is different compared to the cells in 2D cultures. This discrepancy between 2D and 3D cultures is likely associated with the cell-cell contact, density and ligand-receptor interactions. Following the 3D monoculture study, a 3D direct co-culture model of CaP cells and the human tissue engineered bone (hTEBC) construct was developed. Interactions between the CaP cells and human osteoblasts (hOBs) resulted in elevation of Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) for PC-3 cells and Prostate Specific Antigen (PSA) for LNCaP cells. To further investigate the paracrine interaction of CaP cells and (hOBs), a 3D indirect co-culture model was developed, where LNCaP cells embedded within PEG hydrogels were co-cultured with hTEBC. It was found that the cellular changes observed reflect the early event of CaP colonizing the bone site. In the absence of androgens, interestingly, up-regulation of PSA and other kallikreins is also detected in the co-culture compared to the LNCaP monoculture. This non androgenic stimulation could be triggered by the soluble factors secreted by the hOB such as Interleukin-6. There are also decrease in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and down-regulation of genes of the hOB when co-cultured with LNCaP cells that have not been previously described. These genes include transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1), osteocalcin and Vimentin. However, no changes to epithelial markers (e.g E-cadherin, Cytokeratin 8) were observed in both cell types from the co-culture. Some of these intriguing changes observed in the co-cultures that had not been previously described have enriched the basic knowledge of the CaP cell-bone interaction. From this study, we have shown evidence of the feasibility and versatility of our established 3D models. These models can be adapted to test various hypotheses for studies pertaining to underlying mechanisms of bone metastasis and could provide a vehicle for anticancer drug screening purposes in the future.

Principals’ and teacher leaders’ perceptions of their role and interaction under current Chinese reform : a case study in Shandong province

This study aims to explore the perceptions of principals and teacher leaders regarding their roles and the interaction between these roles in Chinese urban primary schools at the time of unprecedented curriculum reform. This involves a complexity of factors such as the influence of globalisation, the impact of traditional Chinese cultural attitudes towards education through Confucianism, and the implementation requirements of the current education reforms. All of these wider contextual factors help to shape the leadership practices that are described in the study. A qualitative exploratory case study approach has been utilised to undertake this investigation. The conceptual framework for this study draws upon scholars‘ work from Western countries but has been adapted in order to address three research questions for the study‘s focus on the context in Shandong province, Mainland China. Three research questions were addressed: First, what are principals‘ perceptions of their leadership roles in Mainland China under current educational reform? Second, what are teacher leaders‘ perceptions of their leadership roles in Mainland China under current educational reform? And finally, what are principals‘ and teacher leaders‘ perceptions of how their roles interact? With reference to the principals in the study, the findings confirm Gurr‘s (2008) comprehensive leadership model relating to four roles, specifically, learning and teaching, symbolic and cultural awareness, future orientation, and accountability. Significantly, some sub-roles that emerge from the data are uniquely Chinese. For example, school culture construction is a very deliberate process in which principals and their staff talked openly about and were involved in creating a positive school climate comprising spiritual, material, and system dimensions. Another finding relates to school feature construction. This refers to the process that principals and staff used to make their schools distinctive and different from other schools and included such features as the school‘s philosophy and the school-based curriculum. In seeking to understand the nature of teacher leadership in Chinese primary schools, this research confirms some findings identified in Western literature. For instance, teacher leaders in Shandong province were involved in decision-making, working with parents and community members, undertaking and planning professional development for staff, and mediating between colleagues (Day & Harris, 2002; Harrison & Killion, 2007; Leithwood, Jantzi, & Steinbach, 1999; Muijs & Harris, 2006; Smylie, 1992). However, some new aspects, such as a heightened awareness of the importance of accountability, emerge from this study. The study‘s conceptual framework also draws upon some significant insights from micropolitics and, in particular, two core constructs, namely cooperation and conflict (Blase, 1991), to explore the interactions between principals and teacher leaders. In this study, principals and teacher leaders employed exchange and facilitation as two strategies in cooperative processes; and they adopted enforcement and compromise in conflictive processes. Finally, the study‘s findings indicate that principals and teacher leaders were developing new ways of interacting in response to the requirements of significant education reform. Most principals were exercising their power through (Blase, 1991) their teacher leaders who in turn, were working in alignment with their principals to achieve the desired outcomes in schools. It was significant that this form of 'parallel leadership' (Crowther, Ferguson, & Ham, 2009) characterised the teacher leadership roles at this period of change to the curriculum in Mainland China.

Modeling and analyzing the carbon footprint of business processes

Many corporations and individuals realize that environmental sustainability is an urgent problem to address. In this chapter, we contribute to the emerging academic discussion by proposing two innovative approaches for engaging in the development of environmentally sustainable business processes. Specifically, we describe an extended process modeling approach for capturing and documenting the dioxide emissions produced during the execution of a business process. For illustration, we apply this approach to the case of a government Shared Service provider. Second, we then introduce an analysis method for measuring the carbon dioxide emissions produced during the execution of a business process. To illustrate this approach, we apply it in the real-life case of a European airport and show how this information can be leveraged in the re-design of "green" business processes.

Ureaplasma parvum : understanding the complexities of intra-amniotic infection in an ovine model

The human Ureaplasma species are the most frequently isolated bacteria from the upper genital tract of pregnant women and can cause clinically asymptomatic, intra-uterine infections, which are difficult to treat with antimicrobials. Ureaplasma infection of the upper genital tract during pregnancy has been associated with numerous adverse outcomes including preterm birth, chorioamnionitis and neonatal respiratory diseases. The mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to chronically colonise the amniotic fluid and avoid eradication by (i) the host immune response and (ii) maternally-administered antimicrobials, remain virtually unexplored. To address this gap within the literature, this study investigated potential mechanisms by which ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections in an established ovine model. In this PhD program of research the effectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin for the treatment of chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections was evaluated. At 55 days of gestation pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of either: a clinical Ureaplasma parvum serovar 3 isolate that was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics (n = 16); or 10B medium (n = 16). At 100 days of gestation, ewes were then randomised to receive either maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days) or no treatment. Ureaplasmas were isolated from amniotic fluid, chorioamnion, umbilical cord and fetal lung specimens, which were collected at the time of preterm delivery of the fetus (125 days of gestation). Surprisingly, the numbers of ureaplasmas colonising the amniotic fluid and fetal tissues were not different between experimentally-infected animals that received erythromycin treatment or infected animals that did not receive treatment (p > 0.05), nor were there any differences in fetal inflammation and histological chorioamnionitis between these groups (p > 0.05). These data demonstrate the inability of maternal erythromycin to eradicate intra-uterine ureaplasma infections. Erythromycin was detected in the amniotic fluid of animals that received antimicrobial treatment (but not in those that did not receive treatment) by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry; however, the concentrations were below therapeutic levels (<10 – 76 ng/mL). These findings indicate that the ineffectiveness of standard, maternal erythromycin treatment of intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections may be due to the poor placental transfer of this drug. Subsequently, the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion of pregnant sheep after chronic, intra-amniotic infection and low-level exposure to erythromycin were investigated. At 55 days of gestation twelve pregnant ewes received an intra-amniotic injection of a clinical U. parvum serovar 3 isolate, which was sensitive to macrolide antibiotics. At 100 days of gestation, ewes received standard maternal erythromycin treatment (30 mg/kg/day for four days, n = 6) or saline (n = 6). Preterm fetuses were surgically delivered at 125 days of gestation and ureaplasmas were cultured from the amniotic fluid and the chorioamnion. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of erythromycin, azithromycin and roxithromycin were determined for cultured ureaplasma isolates, and antimicrobial susceptibilities were different between ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid (MIC range = 0.08 – 1.0 mg/L) and chorioamnion (MIC range = 0.06 – 5.33 mg/L). However, the increased resistance to macrolide antibiotics observed in chorioamnion ureaplasma isolates occurred independently of exposure to erythromycin in vivo. Remarkably, domain V of the 23S ribosomal RNA gene (which is the target site of macrolide antimicrobials) of chorioamnion ureaplasmas demonstrated significant variability (125 polymorphisms out of 422 sequenced nucleotides, 29.6%) when compared to the amniotic fluid ureaplasma isolates and the inoculum strain. This sequence variability did not occur as a consequence of exposure to erythromycin, as the nucleotide substitutions were identical between chorioamnion ureaplasmas isolated from different animals, including those that did not receive erythromycin treatment. We propose that these mosaic-like 23S ribosomal RNA gene sequences may represent gene fragments transferred via horizontal gene transfer. The significant differences observed in (i) susceptibility to macrolide antimicrobials and (ii) 23S ribosomal RNA sequences of ureaplasmas isolated from the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion suggests that the anatomical site from which they were isolated may exert selective pressures that alter the socio-microbiological structure of the bacterial population, by selecting for genetic changes and altered antimicrobial susceptibility profiles. The final experiment for this PhD examined antigenic size variation of the multiple banded antigen (MBA, a surface-exposed lipoprotein and predicted ureaplasmal virulence factor) in chronic, intra-amniotic ureaplasma infections. Previously defined ‘virulent-derived’ and ‘avirulent-derived’ clonal U. parvum serovar 6 isolates (each expressing a single MBA protein) were injected into the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes (n = 20) at 55 days of gestation, and amniotic fluid was collected by amniocentesis every two weeks until the time of near-term delivery of the fetus (at 140 days of gestation). Both the avirulent and virulent clonal ureaplasma strains generated MBA size variants (ranging in size from 32 – 170 kDa) within the amniotic fluid of pregnant ewes. The mean number of MBA size variants produced within the amniotic fluid was not different between the virulent (mean = 4.2 MBA variants) and avirulent (mean = 4.6 MBA variants) ureaplasma strains (p = 0.87). Intra-amniotic infection with the virulent strain was significantly associated with the presence of meconium-stained amniotic fluid (p = 0.01), which is an indicator of fetal distress in utero. However, the severity of histological chorioamnionitis was not different between the avirulent and virulent groups. We demonstrated that ureaplasmas were able to persist within the amniotic fluid of pregnant sheep for 85 days, despite the host mounting an innate and adaptive immune response. Pro-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin (IL)-1â, IL-6 and IL-8) were elevated within the chorioamnion tissue of pregnant sheep from both the avirulent and virulent treatment groups, and this was significantly associated with the production of anti-ureaplasma IgG antibodies within maternal sera (p < 0.05). These findings suggested that the inability of the host immune response to eradicate ureaplasmas from the amniotic cavity may be due to continual size variation of MBA surface-exposed epitopes. Taken together, these data confirm that ureaplasmas are able to cause long-term in utero infections in a sheep model, despite standard antimicrobial treatment and the development of a host immune response. The overall findings of this PhD project suggest that ureaplasmas are able to cause chronic, intra-amniotic infections due to (i) the limited placental transfer of erythromycin, which prevents the accumulation of therapeutic concentrations within the amniotic fluid; (ii) the ability of ureaplasmas to undergo rapid selection and genetic variation in vivo, resulting in ureaplasma isolates with variable MICs to macrolide antimicrobials colonising the amniotic fluid and chorioamnion; and (iii) antigenic size variation of the MBA, which may prevent eradication of ureaplasmas by the host immune response and account for differences in neonatal outcomes. The outcomes of this program of study have improved our understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of this highly adapted microorganism.

Leveraging innovation for sustainable construction, proceedings of the CIB Task Group 58: Clients and Construction Innovation Workshop

This publication consists of a volume of papers presented at the workshop of the CIB Task Group 58: Clients and Construction Innovation, held on May 18- 19, 2009 at the University of Alberta in Edmonton, Canada. The workshop theme, “Leveraging Innovation for Sustainable Construction”, reflects a growing concern among clients for perspectives, approaches, and tools that will secure the practice of construction economically, socially, and environmentally. This collection encompasses some of the most incisive assessments of the challenges facing the construction industry today from a range of researchers and industry practitioners who are leading the way for tomorrow’s innovations. It provides a useful documentation of the ongoing conversation regarding innovation and sustainability issues and a foundation of knowledge for future research and development. The papers contained in this volume explore the workshop’s overarching theme of how to leverage innovation to increase the sustainability of the construction process and product. Participants sought to generate discussion on the topics of innovation and sustainability within the construction field, to share international examples of innovation from the research community and from industry, and to establish a point of reference for ongoing enquiry. In particular, our contributors have noted the value of learning through practice in order to orient research based on real-world industry experience. Chapters two and three present complementary models of sustainable research programs through the three parts collaboration of government, industry, and academia. Chapters four and five explore new tools and forms of technological innovation as they are deployed to improve construction project management and set the direction for advances in research. Chapters six, seven, and eight closely study practical examples of innovation in large-scale construction projects, showing with concrete results the impact of applying creative methods and best practices to the field. Innovation and sustainability in construction are truly global efforts; these papers illustrate how we can draw on international examples and cooperative organizations to address these important issues for long-term benefit of the industry.

Measuring the effect of motorcycle rider training on psychosocial influences for risk taking

Aim: Whilst motorcycle rider training is commonly incorporated into licensing programs in many developed nations, little empirical support has been found in previous research to prescribe it as an effective road safety countermeasure. It has been posited that the lack of effect of motorcycle rider training on crash reduction may, in part, be due to the predominant focus on skills-based training with little attention devoted to addressing attitudes and motives that influence subsequent risky riding. However, little past research has actually endeavoured to measure attitudinal and motivational factors as a function of rider training. Accordingly, this study was undertaken to assess the effect of a commercial motorcycle rider training program on psychosocial factors that have been shown to influence risk taking by motorcyclists. Method: Four hundred and thirty-eight motorcycle riders attending a competency-based licence training course in Brisbane, Australia, voluntarily participated in the study. A self-report questionnaire adapted from the Rider Risk Assessment Measure (RRAM) was administered to participants at the commencement of training, then again at the conclusion of training. Participants were informed of the independent nature of the research and that their responses would in no way effect their chance of obtaining a licence. To minimise potential demand characteristics, participants were instructed to seal completed questionnaires in envelopes and place them in a sealed box accessible only by the research team (i.e. not able to be viewed by instructors). Results: Significant reductions in the propensity for thrill seeking and intentions to engage in risky riding in the next 12 months were found at the end of training. In addition, a significant increase in attitudes to safety was found. Conclusions: These findings indicate that rider training may have a positive short-term influence on riders’ propensity for risk taking. However, such findings must be interpreted with caution in regard to the subsequent safety of riders as these factors may be subject to further influence once riders are licensed and actively engage with peers during on-road riding. This highlights a challenge for road safety education / training programs in regard to the adoption of safety practices and the need for behavioural follow-up over time to ascertain long-term effects. This study was the initial phase of an ongoing program of research into rider training and risk taking framed around Theory of Planned Behaviour concepts. A subsequent 12 month follow-up of the study participants has been undertaken with data analysis pending.

Sustainable retirement living : what matters

There is a growing demand for sustainable retirement villages in Australia due to an increasing number of ageing population and public acceptance of sustainable development. This research aims to gain a better understanding of retirees’ understanding about sustainable retirement living and their attitudes towards sustainable developments via a questionnaire survey approach. The results showed that the current and potential residents of retirement villages are generally very conscious of unsustainable resource consumption and would like their residences and community to be more environmentally friendly and energy efficient. The cost of energy supply is a concern to majority of respondents. Education is required to residents about recycling household waste and how to use available facilities. A better understanding of retirees’ awareness and attitudes towards sustainability issues helps to improve the sustainable developments of retirement villages in the future.

Sustainable retirement living : what matters

There is a growing demand for sustainable retirement villages in Australia due to an increasing number of ageing population and public acceptance of sustainable development. This research aims to gain a better understanding of retirees’ understanding about sustainable retirement living and their attitudes towards sustainable developments via a questionnaire survey approach. The results showed that the current and potential residents of retirement villages are generally very conscious of unsustainable resource consumption and would like their residences and community to be more environmentally friendly and energy efficient. The cost of energy supply is a concern to majority of respondents. Education is required to residents about recycling household waste and how to use available facilities. A better understanding of retirees’ awareness and attitudes towards sustainability issues helps to improve the sustainable developments of retirement villages in the future.

Illusions of Difference: Comparative Youth Justice in the Devolved UK

Surprisingly, there has been little or no systematic research to date that has explored the significance of UK devolution for youth justice policy and practice. This article explores the extent of differential justice in the United Kingdom, particularly as it is expressed in the myriad action plans, criminal justice reviews, frameworks for action, delivery plans and offending strategies that have surfaced since 1998. In particular, the article considers how far policy convergence and divergence are reflected through the discourses of risk, welfare, restoration and children's rights in the four administrations of England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. For comparative criminology, the United Kingdom offers a unique opportunity to explore how international and national pressures towards convergence and/or divergence can be challenged, rebranded, versioned, adapted or resisted at sub-national and local levels.

Unsteady natural convection within a differentially heated enclosure of sinusoidal corrugated side walls

Numerically investigation of natural convection within a differentially heated modified square enclosure with sinusoidally corrugated side walls has been performed for different values of Rayleigh number. The fluid inside the enclosure considered is air and is quiescent, initially. The top and bottom surfaces are flat and considered as adiabatic. Results reveal three main stages: an initial stage, a transitory or oscillatory stage and a steady stage for the development of natural convection flow inside the corrugated cavity. The numerical scheme is based on the finite element method adapted to triangular non-uniform mesh element by a non-linear parametric solution algorithm. Investigation has been performed for the Rayleigh number, Ra ranging from 105 to 108 with variation of corrugation amplitude and frequency. Constant physical properties for the fluid medium have been assumed. Results have been presented in terms of the isotherms, streamlines, temperature plots, average Nusselt numbers, traveling waves and thermal boundary layer thickness plots, temperature and velocity profiles. The effects of sudden differential heating and its consequent transient behavior on fluid flow and heat transfer characteristics have been observed for the range of governing parameters. The present results show that the transient phenomena are greatly influenced by the variation of the Rayleigh Number with corrugation amplitude and frequency.

Towards local cultures of sustainability : facilitating community created environment education centres through design

Ecological sustainability has been proposed to address the problem of human impacts increasingly degrading planetary resources and ecosystems, threatening biodiversity, eco-services and human survival. Ecological sustainability is an imperative, with Australia having one of the highest eco-footprints per person worldwide. While significant progress has been made via implementation of ecologically sustainable design in urban communities, relatively little has been undertaken in small, disparate regional communities in Australia. Regional communities are disadvantaged by rural economic decline associated with structural change and inequities of resource transfer. The ecologically sustainable solution is holistic, so all settlements need to be globally wise, richly biodiverse yet locally specific. As a regional solution to this global problem, this research offers the practical means by which a small regional community can contribute. It focuses on the design and implementation of a community centre and the fostering of transformative community learning through an integrated ‘learning community’ awareness of ecologically sustainable best practice. Lessons learned are documented by the participant researcher who as a designer, facilitator, local resident and social narrator has been deeply connected with the Tweed-Caldera region over a period since 1980. The collective action of the local community of Chillingham has been diligently recorded over a decade of design and development. Over this period, several positive elements emerged in terms of improvements to the natural and built environment, greater social cohesion and co-operative learning along with a shift towards a greener local economy. Behavioural changes in the community were noted as residents strived to embrace ecological ideals and reduce fossil fuel dependency. They found attractive local solutions to sourcing of food and using local employment opportunities to up skill their residents via transformative learning as a community in transition. Finally, the catalytic impact of external partnering has also been documented. How well the region as a whole has achieved its ecologically sustainable objectives is measured in terms of the delivered success of private and public partnering with the community, the creation of a community centre cum environment education centre, the restoration of local heritage buildings, the repair of riparian forests and improved water conditions in local river systems, better roads and road safety, local skills and knowledge transfer, support of local food and local/regional growers markets to attract tourists via the integrated trails network. In aggregate, each and every element contributes to a measure of eco-positive development for the built environment, its social organisation and its economy that has guided the local community to find its own pathway to sustainability. Within the Tweed-Caldera bioregion in northern New South Wales, there has been a lack of strategic planning, ecologically sustainable knowledge and facilities in isolated communities that could support the development of a local sustained green economy, provide a hub for socio-cultural activities and ecology based education. The first challenge in this research was to model a whole systems approach to eco-positive development in Chillingham, NSW, a small community where Nature and humanity know no specific boundary. The net result was the creation of a community environment education centre featuring best-affordable ecological practice and regionally distinctive, educational building form from a disused heritage building (cow bale). This development, implemented over a decade, resonated with the later regional wide programs that were linked in the Caldera region by the common purpose of extending the reach of local and state government assistance to regional NSW in economic transition coupled with sustainability. The lessons learned from these linked projects reveal that subsequent programs have been significantly easier to initiate, manage, develop and deliver results. In particular, pursuing collaborative networks with all levels of government and external private partners has been economically effective. Each community’s uniqueness has been celebrated and through drawing out these distinctions, has highlighted local vision, strategic planning, sense of belonging and connection of people with place. This step has significantly reduced the level of friction between communities that comes from natural competition for the finite pool of funds. Following the pilot Tweed-Caldera study, several other NSW regional communities are now undertaking a Community Economic Transition Program based on the processes, trials and positive experiences witnessed in the Tweed-Caldera region where it has been demonstrated that regional community transition programs can provide an opportunity to plan and implement effective long term strategies for sustainability, empowering communities to participate in eco-governance. This thesis includes the design and development of a framework for community created environment education centres to provide an equal access place for community to participate to meet their essential needs locally. An environment centre that facilitates community transition based on easily accessible environmental education, skills and infrastructure is necessary to develop local cultures of sustainability. This research draws upon the literatures of ecologically sustainable development, environmental education and community development in the context of regional community transition towards ‘strong sustainability’. The research approach adapted is best described as a four stage collaborative action research cycle where the participant researcher (me) has a significant involvement in the process to foster local cultures of sustainability by empowering its citizens to act locally and in doing so, become more self reliant and socially resilient. This research also draws upon the many fine working exemplars, such as the resilience of the Cuban people, the transition town initiative in Totnes, U.K. and the models of Australian Community Gardens, such as CERES (Melbourne) and Northey Street (Brisbane). The objectives of this study are to research and evaluate exemplars of ecologically sustainable environment education centres, to facilitate the design and development of an environment education centre created by a small regional community as an ecologically sustainable learning environment; to facilitate a framework for community transition based on environmental education, skills and infrastructure necessary to develop local cultures of sustainability. The research was undertaken as action research in the Tweed Caldera in Northern NSW. This involved the author as participant researcher, designer and volunteer in two interconnected initiatives: the Chillingham Community Centre development and the Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP). Both initiatives involved a series of design-led participatory community workshops that were externally facilitated with the support of government agency partnerships, steering committees and local volunteers. Together the Caldera research programs involved communities participating in developing their own strategic planning process and outcomes. The Chillingham Community Centre was developed as a sustainable community centre/hub using a participatory design process. The Caldera Economic Transition Program (CETP) prioritised Caldera region projects: the Caldera farmer’s market; community gardens and community kitchens; community renewable energy systems and an integrated trails network. The significant findings were: the CETP projects were capable of moving towards an eco-positive design benchmark through transformative learning. Community transition to sustainability programs need to be underpinned by sustainability and environmental education based frameworks and practical on ground experience in local needs based projects through transformative learning. The actioned projects were successfully undertaken through community participation and teamwork. Ecological footprint surveys were undertaken to guide and assess the ongoing community transition process, however the paucity of responses needs to be revisited. The concept of ecologically sustainable development has been adopted internationally, however existing design and planning strategies do not assure future generations continued access to healthy natural life support systems. Sustainable design research has usually been urban focussed, with little attention paid to regional communities. This study seeks to redress this paucity through the design of ecologically sustainable (deep green) learning environments for small regional communities. Through a design-led process of environmental education, this study investigates how regional communities can be facilitated to model the principles of eco-positive development to support transition to local cultures of sustainability. This research shows how community transition processes and projects can incorporate sustainable community development as transformative learning through design. Regional community transition programs can provide an opportunity to plan long term strategies for sustainability, empowering people to participate in eco-governance. A framework is developed for a community created environment education centre to provide an equal access place for the local community to participate in implementing ways to meet their essential needs locally. A community environment education centre that facilitates community transition based on holistic environmental education, skills and infrastructure is necessary to develop local cultures of sustainability.