The Peace Processes in the Basque Country and Northern Ireland (1994-2006): a Comparative Approach

The peace process in Northern Ireland demonstrates that new sovereignty formulas need to be explored in order to meet the demands of the populations and territories in conflict. The profound transformation of the classic symbolic elements of the nation-state within the context of the European Union has greatly contributed to the prospects for a resolution of this old conflict. Today’s discussions are focused on the search for instruments of shared sovereignty that are adapted to a complex and plural social reality. This new approach for finding a solution to the Irish conflict is particularly relevant to the Basque debate about formulating creative and modern solutions to similar conflicts over identity and sovereignty. The notion of shared sovereignty implemented in Northern Ireland –a formula for complex interdependent relations– is of significant relevance to the broader international community and is likely to become an increasingly potent and transcendent model for conflict resolution and peace building.

Attempts to Improve Xenodiagnosis: Comparative Test of Sensibility Using Rhodnius neglectus, Panstrongylus megistus, Triatoma vitticeps and Triatoma infestans in Endemic Areas of Brazil

From June 1984 to July 1992, 392 xenodiagnostic tests were applied on 264 patients with chronic Chagas disease from Brazilian endemic areas of Virgem da Lapa and Coronel Murta, situated in the Jequitinhonha Valley, in the State of Minas Gerais. The susceptibilities of Rhodnius neglectus, Panstrongylus megistus, Triatoma vitticeps and Triatoma infestans were compared. Most of the time 20 nymphs (fourth instar) of each species were applied to 161 women and 103 men aged between 5 and 83 years of age. The tests were prepared to compare the susceptibilities of two species at a time, using the same patients for each test. Results showed a xenopositiveness of 26.28% (103 tests) being 27.98% in women (68 positive in 243 applied tests) and 23.49% in men (35 positive in 149 applied tests). The relative frequency of xenopositiveness displayed a great superiority of P. megistus and T. vitticeps. In tests from type I, for example, P. megistus was the unique responsible for 10.73% of positive xenodiagnosis vs. only 0.98% in T. infestans. Other parameters analized in this work confirm this superiority, and corroborate that T. infestans can be replaced by P. megistus and /or T. vitticeps in order to upgrade the efficacy of xenodiagnosis

Contrasting Genomic Variability between Clones from Field Isolates and Laboratory Populations of Schistosoma mansoni

The extent of genomic variability of clones of Schistosoma mansoni obtained from field isolates was compared with that of strains that have been laboratory maintained. Analysis was undertaken using randomly amplified polymorphic dNAs (RAPDs) generated with three primers. Phenograms showing the similarity among the clones were constructed. The data showed that while the laboratory strain is highly homogeneous the clones derived from the field populations were highly variable with 43% of RAPDs exhibiting polymorphisms among 23 clones. Clones isolated from the same infected individual were always more closely grouped than clones from different individuals. The data clearly demonstrated that earlier analyses of the genomic variability in S. mansoni have underestimated this phenomenon due to the failure to examine field isolates

A Comparative Study of the Organic Acid Content of the Hemolymph of Schistosoma mansoni-Resistant and Susceptible Strains of Biomphalaria glabrata

The freshwater snail Biomphalaria glabrata is an intermediate host of the trematode Schistosoma mansoni. However, some strains of B. glabrata are resistant to successful infection by S. mansoni larvae. The present work examines the profile of organic acids present in S. mansoni-resistant and -susceptible strains of B. glabrata, in order to determine whether the type of organic acid present is related to susceptibility. The organic acids were extracted from the hemolymph of two susceptible B. glabrata strains (PR, Puerto Rico and Ba, Jacobina-Bahia from Brazil), and from the resistant strains 13-16-R1 and 10R2, using solid phase extraction procedures followed by high performance liquid chromatography. The organic acids obtained were analyzed and identified by comparison with known standards. Pyruvate, lactate, succinate, malate, fumarate, acetate, propionate, ß-hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate were detected in all hemolymph samples. Under standard conditions, the concentration of each of these substances varied among the strains tested and appeared to be specific for each strain. An interesting variation was the low concentration of pyruvate in the hemolymph of PR-snails. Only the concentration of fumarate was consistently different (p£ 0.05) between resistant and susceptible strains

Comparative Histopathology of Biomphalaria glabrata, B. tenagophila and B. straminea with Variable Degrees of Resistance to Schistosoma mansoni Miracidia

A comparative histopathological study of three snails species - Biomphalaria glabrata, B. tenagophila and B. straminea - which had been infected with Schistosoma mansoni miracidia revealed similar qualitative features, consisting of areas of sporocyst proliferation and differentiation associated with reactive host reaction, at the time they were actively eliminating great number of cercariae. However, in specimens that were exposed to miracidia but failed to eliminate cercariae later on, different histopathological pictures were observed in different snail species. While B. glabrata exhibited frequent focal (granulomatous) proliferation of amebocytes in several organs, B. tenagophila and B. straminea only rarely showed such reactive changes, suggesting that the mechanism of resistance to miracidial infection probably follows different pathways in the snail species studied

Le management de juridiction : analyse comparative de l'organisation et du fonctionnement managérial de cinq juridictions du pouvoir judiciaire à Genève

Cette étude comparative analyse le management au sein de cinq juridictions du pouvoir judiciaire genevois. Elle s'intéresse en particulier au président et au greffier de juridiction, qui, dans ces structures, sont investis de cette mission, et se fonde sur une conception actualisée du cycle traditionnel de management. Comment fonctionnent et s'organisent les juridictions du point de vue managérial ? Comment les managers se répartissent-ils leur rôle et leurs responsabilités ? Quelles sont les pratiques managériales utilisées, et comment sont-elles perçues par les collaborateurs et les managers ? Cet ouvrage a pour objectif de répondre à ces questions et de formuler une série de recommandations visant l'optimisation du management juridictionnel au sein du pouvoir judiciaire à Genève.

Mesurer la pratique religieuse: différentes enquêtes, différents taux? Analyse comparative à partir de la Suisse

In Switzerland, national census data imply that 84.5 percent are affiliated with religious groups and national survey data imply that 15 percent attend a service on a given weekend in 2009. Research in other countries has shown that attendance is often over-reported, but the level of over-report varies across countries. Thus, in the United States, polls show high and stable levels of religious practice, while Church participation surveys indicate rates twice lower. This article assesses the validity of self-reported affiliation and attendance in Switzerland using the 2009 Swiss National Congregations Study (NCS). Results confirm the observation offered by others that the Swiss census undercounts the persuasions absent from the stylized response categories and they show for the first time that Swiss probably over-report their church attendance, though not as much as in the United States.

Detection of Toxoplasma gondii-Specific Antibodies in Dogs. A Comparative Study of Immunoenzymatic, Immunofluorescent and Haemagglutination Titers

We evaluated the titers of anti-T. gondii antibodies by various serological tests in 40 serum samples from dogs exhibiting clinical signs of infectious diseases. Indirect immunofluorescence (IgG-IFI), indirect haemagglutination (IHA and M-Toxo) and immunoenzymatic (ELISA and PA-ELISA) tests were carried out. Titers ³ 64 were considered as positive. Anti-Toxoplasma antibodies were found in 9 (22.5%), 14 (35%), 14 (35%) and 12 (30%) samples, respectively for IHA, IgG-IFI, ELISA and PA-ELISA. The results showed that 57% were negative in all tests and 43% of the dogs presented antibodies to T. gondii; from these, 20% were positive in all three tests with high titers of antibodies and 23% were positive in only one or two tests with low titers of antibodies and mainly related to the IFI and ELISA tests. We observed 5 (12.5%) and 1 (2.5%) reactive samples, respectively, by M-Toxo and IHA with or without 2-mercapthoethanol, in the attempt to detect specific IgM. We can conclude that serodiagnosis of toxoplasmosis in dog have to be based on the combination of serological tests (IFI and ELISA) and with emphasis at the determination of the titers and the classes of the specific antibodies

Proceedings of the Schistosome Genome Project

"The host-parasite relationship" is a vast and diverse research field which, despite huge human and financial input over many years, remains largely shrouded in mystery. Clearly, the adaptation of parasites to their different host species, and to the different environmental stresses that they represent, depends on interactions with, and responses to, various molecules of host and/or parasite origin. The schistosome genome project is a primary strategy to reach the goal; this systematic research project has successfully developed novel technologies for qualitative and quantitative characterization of schistosome genes and genome organization by extensive international collaboration between top quality laboratories. Schistosomes are a family of parasitic blood flukes (Phylum Platyhelminthes), which have seven pairs of autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes (ZZ for a male worm and ZW for a female), of a haploid genome size of 2.7x108 base pairs (Simpson et al. 1982). Schistosomes are ideal model organisms for the development of genome mapping strategies since they have a small genome size comparable to that of well-characterized model organisms such as Caenorhabditis elegans (100 Mb) and Drosophila (165 Mb), and contain functional genes with a high level of homology to the host mammalian genes. Here we summarize the current progress in the schistosome genome project, the information of 3,047 transcribed genes (Expressed Sequence Tags; EST), complete sets of cDNA and genomic DNA libraries (including YAC and cosmid libraries) with a mapping technique to the well defined schistosome chromosomes. The schistosome genome project will further identify and characterize the key molecules that are responsible for host-parasite adaptation, i.e., successful growth, development, maturation and reproduction of the parasite within its host in the near future

Genes and Chromosomes of Leishmania infantum

During recent years, several Leishmania infantum genes have been cloned and characterized. Here, we have summarized the available information on the gene organization and expression in this protozoan parasite. From a comparative analysis, the following outstanding features were found to be common to most of the genes characterized: tandemly organized genes with conserved coding regions and divergent untranslated regions, polycistronic transcription and post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression. The analysis of chromosomes of L. infantum by pulsed-field electrophoresis showed the existence of both size and number polymorphisms such that each strain has a distinctive molecular karyotype. Despite this variability, highly conserved physical linkage groups exists among different strains of L. infantum and even among Old World Leishmania species. Gene mapping on the L. infantum molecular karyotype evidenced a bias in chromosomal distribution of, at least, the evolutionary conserved genes

Comparative Meiotic Studies in Triatoma sordida (Stål) and T. guasayana Wygodzinsky & Abalos (Reduviidae, Heteroptera)

Triatoma sordida and T. guasayana are competent Trypanosoma cruzi vectors, with overlapping distribution areas in Argentina. Both species are morphologically similar, and their immature stages are hard to discriminate. Cytogenetic studies in the genus Triatoma reveal scarce karyotypic variations, being 2n= 20 + XY the most frequent diploid number in males. In the present work the meiotic behaviour of different Argentinian populations of T. sordida and T. guasayana has been analyzed; the meiotic karyotype of both species has also been compared. The species differ in total chromosome area and in the relative area of the sex chromosomes. These meiotic karyotypic differences constitute an additional tool for the taxonomic characterization of T. sordida and T. guasayana. The analysis of an interpopulation hybrid of T. sordida (Brazil x Argentina) reveals a regular meiotic behaviour, despite the presence of heteromorphic bivalents. Our observations support the hypothesis that karyotype variations through the gain or loss of heterochromatin can not be considered as a primary mechanism of reproductive isolation in Triatoma.

Molecular Epidemiologic Typing Systems of Bacterial Pathogens: Current Issues and Perpectives

The epidemiologic typing of bacterial pathogens can be applied to answer a number of different questions: in case of outbreak, what is the extent and mode of transmission of epidemic clone(s )? In case of long-term surveillance, what is the prevalence over time and the geographic spread of epidemic and endemic clones in the population? A number of molecular typing methods can be used to classify bacteria based on genomic diversity into groups of closely-related isolates (presumed to arise from a common ancestor in the same chain of transmission) and divergent, epidemiologically-unrelated isolates (arising from independent sources of infection). Ribotyping, IS-RFLP fingerprinting, macrorestriction analysis of chromosomal DNA and PCR-fingerprinting using arbitrary sequence or repeat element primers are useful methods for outbreak investigations and regional surveillance. Library typing systems based on multilocus sequence-based analysis and strain-specific probe hybridization schemes are in development for the international surveillance of major pathogens like Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Accurate epidemiological interpretation of data obtained with molecular typing systems still requires additional research on the evolution rate of polymorphic loci in bacterial pathogens.

Possible hybridization of Brazilian planorbid snails and its importance in population dynamics

This study focuses on the possibility of experimental hybridization among host snail species for Schistosoma mansoni in Brazil, with morphological characterization of the hybrids found. By using albinism as a genetic marker, intraspecific crossbreedings were performed between two strains of each species involved, in addition to interspecific crossbreedings; the only viable crossbreeding was between pigmented Biomphalaria glabrata (Paulista, PE) and albino B. tenagophila (Joinville, SC), with the formation of F1 and F2 generations. All offspring in F1 displayed black eyes and a renal ridge on the mantle, while F2 displayed dissociated morphological traits. With regard to reproduction, F1 was more efficient than F2. The experiment's results suggest post-zygotic reproductive isolation.

A comparative study on IgG-ELISA, IgM-IFT and Kato-Katz methods for epidemiological purposes in a low endemic area for schistosomiasis

The high sensitivity and the possibility of automation of the enzyme-linked-immunosorbent-assay (ELISA) has indicated this technique as one of the most useful serological test for epidemiological studies. In the present study, an ELISA for detection of IgG antibodies against adult worm antigens (IgG-ELISA) was investigated for epidemiological purposes, in a rural area of the municipality of Itariri (São Paulo, Brazil). Blood on filter paper (1,180 samples) from about 650 schoolchildren were submitted to ELISA and the data compared to the results of the parasitological method of Kato-Katz and also to the IgM-IFT (immunofluorescence test for IgM antibodies to gut associated antigens). The prevalence rates respectively of 8.5%, 43.0%, and 56.2% by the Kato-Katz, IgG-ELISA, and IgM-IFT methods suggest the poor sensitivity of the parasitological method for detection of Schistosoma mansoni eggs in individuals with low worm burden, situation commonly observed in low endemic areas. These results can partially explain the poor degree of agreement between the IgG-ELISA and the Kato-Katz, as suggested by the Kappa index of 0.170. Otherwise, the Kappa index of 0.675 showed substantial agreement between the two serological tests. Some discrepancy of results between the two serological techniques must be better investigated.

Comparative Analysis by Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplified Minicircles of Kinetoplast DNA of a Stable Strain of Trypanosoma cruzi from São Felipe, Bahia, its Clones and Subclones: Possibility of Predominance of a Principal Clone in this Area

Molecular characterization of one stable strain of Trypanosoma cruzi, the 21 SF, representative of the pattern of strains isolated from the endemic area of São Felipe, State of Bahia, Brazil, maintained for 15 years in laboratory by serial passages in mice and classified as biodeme Type II and zymodeme 2 has been investigated. The kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) of parental strain, 5 clones and 14 subclones were analyzed. Schizodeme was established by comparative study of the fragments obtained from digestion of the 330-bp fragments amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the variable regions of the minicicles, and digested by restriction endonucleases Rsa I and Hinf I. Our results show a high percentual of similarity between the restriction fragment lenght polymorphism (RFLP) for the parental strain and its clones and among these individual clones and their subclones at a level of 80 to 100%.This homology indicates a predominance of the same "principal clone" in the 21SF strain and confirms the homogeneity previously observed at biological and isozymic analysis. These results suggest the possibility that the T. cruzi strains with similar biological and isoenzymic patterns, circulating in this endemic area, are representative of one dominant clone. The presence of "principal clones" could be responsible for a predominant tropism of the parasites for specific organs and tissues and this could contribute to the pattern of clinico-pathological manifestations of Chagas's disease in one geographical area.