Occurrence of Cryptosporidial Oocysts and Giardia Cysts in Bottled Mineral Water Commercialized in the City of Campinas, State of São Paulo, Brazil

The consumption of bottled mineral water has significantly increased in Brazil so that it is in the interest of public health to determine the parasitological and microbiological status of some brands of Brazilian mineral water available in the town of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil. For this purpose, detection of protozoa by direct immunofluorescence technique and microbiological parameters were determined for each specimen after membrane filtration. Giardia cysts were not present while cryptosporidial oocysts were detected in two samples. The counts of protozoa varied from 0.2 to 0.5 oocysts/l. The detected level of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and heterotrophic bacteria reflected the level of organic enrichment of the water.

Presence of American cutaneous leishmaniasis vectors surrounding the city of Medellín, Colombia

The presence of Lutzomyia (Helcocyrtomyia) hartmanni, as a vector of Leishmania colombiensis and L. columbiana (Verrucarum group), recently incriminated in the transmission of leishmaniasis, and L. pia (Verrucarum group) are reported for the first time in a periurban area of Medellín city. There is thus a risk of leishmaniasis transmission in this town.

Feeding preference of the sand flies Lutzomyia umbratilis and L. spathotrichia (diptera: Psychodidae, Phlebotominae) in an urban forest patch in the city of Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil

Precipitin tests were performed on blood meals of 199 sand flies (161 Lutzomyia umbratilis, 34 L. spathotrichia, two Lutzomyia of group shannoni, one L. anduzei) in a non-flooded upland forest on the Campus of the Universidade Federal do Amazonas. This is the second largest forest fragment in an urban setting in Brazil. Results on L. umbratilis, which is considered to be the principal leishmaniasis vector in this region, indicated rodents as its predominant blood source in contrast to previous reports in which blood meal analysis indicated that this species fed principally on Xenarthra (particularly sloths)

In vitro susceptibility to antifungal agents of environmental Cryptococcus spp. isolated in the city of Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo, Brazil

Infections by Cryptococcus strains other than C. neoformans have been detected in immunocompromised patients. Of these strains, three are considered human pathogens: C. albidus, C. laurenttii, and C. uniguttulatus. This study deals with the in vitro susceptibility of Cryptococcus to drugs such as amphotericin B, itraconazole, fluconazole, and 5-fluorocytosine. Environmental Cryptococcus isolates (50) distributed as follows: C. neoformans var. neoformans (16), C. albidus (17), C. laurentii (14), and C. uniguttulatus (3) were evaluated by the micro and macrodilution techniques, according to EUCAST and NCCLS recommendations, respectively. Considering both methodologies the respective minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were 0.125 and 2 µg/ml for amphotericin B, 0.06 and 8 µg/ml for itraconazole, and 0.5 and more than 64 µg/ml for fluconazole and 5-fluorocytosine. Agreement percentages for the two methodologies were 100% for amphotericin B and fluconazole for all the strains tested. For itraconazole, the agreement percentage was 81.3% in the C. neoformans strain and 100% for all the others. All species had a agreement percentage of 94.1 to 100% when susceptibility to 5-fluorocytosine was tested. It is concluded that environmental isolates of C. neoformans var. neoformans, C. albidus, C. laurentii, and C. uniguttulatus may show high MICs against certain drugs, suggesting in vitro primary resistance to the antifungals tested.

Seroepidemiological study of herpes simplex virus type 2 in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in the city of Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

This study was designed to determine the seroprevalence of herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2) and to evaluate its association with age, sex as well as other demographic and behavioural factors in 150 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) positive adults patients attending the general medical outpatient ward for routine care of Niterói, state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Serum samples were screened for HSV-2 antibodies using an indirect ELISA. Eighty-three patients were men (mean age: 38.8) and 67 were women (mean age: 35.4). The estimated prevalence of HSV-2 was 52% (95% CI: 44-60%) and it was higher among men (53%) than among women (50.7%). Overall, the age of first sexual intercourse and past history of genital herpes were associated with HSV-2 seropositivity. Analysis by gender disclosed significant association of number of lifetime sex partners only among men. Although HSV-2 antibodies were frequent in the study group, genital herpes was reported by 21.8% of the HSV-2 positive subjects, indicating low awareness of the HSV-2 infection. These results may have public health importance for Brazil as the high rate of HSV-2 infection may act as a cofactor of HIV transmission.

Paleopathology of the commoners at Tell Amarna, Egypt, Akhenaten's capital city

The Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten initiated worship of a single god and established a new capital city (Tell Amarna) that was built and occupied only once from 1350-1330 BCE. This single short occupation offers a unique opportunity to study a short time period. The royal tombs have long been known and studied, but the location of graves for the common inhabitants has been an archaeological puzzle for more than 50 years. Recently four cemeteries have been located and the analysis of commingled bones from the South Tombs cemetery is presented here. The remains yield the following demographic profile: 53 adults with 19 females and 18 males; 14 juveniles between the ages of 5 and 17; and 3 infants. Arthritis and degenerative joint disease of the spine and joints indicates that DJD was not excessive. Only 2 to 8% of the adult population exhibits arthritis. There are 3 healed fractures of the arm (2 to 8% of the adult sample). There is 1 healed compressed fracture of the skull suggesting violence. The adult infection rate is between 2 and 8% with 3 healed and 1 active case of periostitis and no severe infections. Anemia is implicated by 23% of adult frontals exhibiting cribra orbitalia. Life for the common residents of Amarna appears to not have been as good as initially postulated.

Molecular diversity of serial Cryptococcus neoformans isolates from AIDS patients in the city of São Paulo, Brazil

Despite highly active anti-retroviral therapy, cryptococcal meningoencephalitis is the second most prevalent neurological disease in Brazilian AIDS patients, being frequently a defining condition with several episodes. As knowledge of Cryptococcus neoformans isolates in the same episode is critical for understanding why some patients develop several episodes, we investigated the genotype characteristics of C. neoformans isolates in two different situations. By pulsed field gel electrophoresis and random amplifield polymorphic DNA analysis, 54 isolates from 12 patients with AIDS and cryptococcosis were analyzed. Group 1 comprised 39 isolates from nine patients with a single episode and hospitalization. Group 2 comprised 15 isolates from three patients with two episodes and hospitalizations. Except for three patients from group 1 probably infected with a single C. neoformans isolate, the other nine patients probably were infected with multiple isolates selected in different collection periods, or the infecting isolate might have underwent mutation to adapt and survive the host immune system and/or the antifungal therapy. However, the three patients from group 2 presented genetic diversity among isolates collected in both hospitalizations, possibly having hosted the initial isolate in both periods. These data, emphasize that Cryptococcus diversity in infection can contribute to strategies of treatment and prevention of cryptococcosis.

Genetic structure of Aedes aegypti in the city of Córdoba (Argentina), a recently reinfested area

To understand the transmission of a vector-borne disease, knowledge of the magnitude of dispersal among vector populations is essential because of its influence on pathogen transfer. The principal vector of dengue, the most common arboviral disease in the world, is the mosquito Aedes aegypti (L.). This tropical and subtropical species is native to Africa but has dispersed worldwide since the XV century. In Argentina, the species was declared eradicated in 1963, but has reinfested the country in recent years. In the present work, we used RAPD-PCR markers to assess the levels of genetic variability and differentiation among populations of Ae. aegypti (the vector of dengue and yellow fever) in Córdoba, the second largest city in Argentina. We detected similar levels of genetic variability (He between 0.351-0.404) across samples and significant genetic differentiation between most population pairs within the city (F ST between 0.0013-0.0253). Genetic distances indicate that there are three distinct groups, formed predominantly by populations that are connected by, or near, main roads. This suggests that, in addition to other factors such as availability of oviposition sites or step-by-step migration, passive transport plays an important role in gene flow within the city.

First isolation of Cryptococcus gattii molecular type VGII and Cryptococcus neoformans molecular type VNI from environmental sources in the city of Belém, Pará, Brazil

Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii are important agents of meningoencephalitis in humans in the city of Belém. This clinical data suggests that the region may be a highly endemic area for the pathogenic Cryptococcus species within the state of Pará (PA), Northern Brazil. Preliminary analysis of 11 environmental samples from the city of Belém showed two positive locations, including a hollow of a kassod tree (Senna siamea) colonized simultaneously by C. gattii molecular type VGII and C. neoformans molecular type VNI, and a birdcage in a commercial aviary positive for C. neoformans, molecular type VNI. This is the first evidence of an environmental occurrence of molecular types VNI and VGII in PA.

A study of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in risk groups in the city of Santos, São Paulo, Brazil

Monitoring the extent of and trends in multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a priority of the Brazilian National Tuberculosis Control Programme. The current study aimed to estimate the incidence of MDR-TB, describe the profile of TB drug resistance in risk groups and examine whether screening for MDR-TB adhered to the recommended guidelines. A descriptive study that examined diagnosed cases of pulmonary TB was conducted in the city of Santos, Brazil, between 2000-2004. Of the 2,176 pulmonary TB cases studied, 671 (30.8%) met the criteria for drug sensitivity testing and, of these cases, 31.7% (213/671) were tested. Among the tested cases, 9.4% were resistant to one anti-TB drug and 15% were MDR. MDR was observed in 11.6% of 86 new TB cases and 17.3% of 127 previously treated cases. The average annual incidence of MDR-TB was 1.9 per 100,000 inhabitants-years. The extent of known MDR-TB in the city of Santos is high, though likely to be underestimated. Our study therefore indicates an inadequate adherence to the guidelines for MDR-TB screening and suggests the necessity of alternative strategies of MDR-TB surveillance.

Lutzomyia longipalpis abundance in the city of Posadas, northeastern Argentina: variations at different spatial scales

The distribution of Lutzomyia longipalpis is heterogeneous with a pattern of high abundance areas (HAAs) embedded in a matrix of low abundance areas (LAAs). The objective of this study was to describe the variability in the abundance of Lu. longipalpis at two different spatial levels and to analyse the relationship between the abundance and multiple environmental variables. Of the environmental variables analysed in each household, the condition that best explained the differences in vector abundance between HAA-LAA was the variable "land_grass", with greater average values in the peridomestic environments within the LAA, and the variables "#sp tree", "#pots" and "dist_water" that were higher in the HAA. Of the environmental variables analysed in the patches, the variable "unpaved_streets" was higher in the LAAs and the variable "prop_inf_dogs" was higher in the HAAs. An understanding of the main environmental variables that influence the vector distribution could contribute to the development of strategies for the prevention and control of visceral leishmaniasis (VL). This is the first work in which environmental variables are analysed at the micro-scale in urban areas at the southern edge of the current range of Lu. longipalpis. Our results represent a significant contribution to the understanding of the abundance of the vector in the peridomestic habitats of the region.

Detection of enteric viruses in recreational waters of an urban lagoon in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

The aim of this study was to determine the occurrences of the group A rotavirus (RVA), norovirus (NoV) and human adenovirus (HAdV) in the surface waters of an urban lagoon (Rodrigo de Freitas Lagoon) in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. During one year of surveillance, water samples were obtained from the lagoon and other interconnected ecosystems (river and beach). The samples were concentrated using an adsorption-elution method with a negatively charged membrane and tested by qualitative and quantitative polymerase chain reaction assays. RVA was the most prevalent virus detected (24.3%) with a viral load ranging from 3.0 x 10¹-5.6 x 10(4) genome copies/L, followed by NoV (18.8%) and HAdV (16.7%). Considering water samples suitable for bathing, according to Escherichia coli criterion (< 2,000 most probable number/100 mL), viruses were detected in 50% (57/114) of them. Physicochemical parameters were also measured and showed possible correlations between turbidity and RVA presence and between pH and NoV presence. These data demonstrate the importance of considering viral parameters to ensure water quality and the utilisation of these parameters as additional tools for the characterisation of environmental contamination.

Appropriation of technology in "non-western" societies: an approximation to the case of Bulgaria

The principal focus of the PhD thesis lies in the Social Software area and the appropriation of technology in "non-Western" societies taking the example of Bulgaria. The term "non-Western" is used to explain places considered technologically underdeveloped. The aims have been to capture how Bulgarian users creatively interpret and appropriate Internet identifying the sociocultural, political and subjective conditions in which that appropriation occurs, to identify emerging practices based on the interpretation and use of Internet and the impact they had on society and what conditions could influence the technological interpretation and the meaning these practices had for both users and social configuration of Internet as media in Bulgaria. An ethnographic approach has been used simultaneously in different online and offline contexts. On the one hand, this study is based on exploration of the Bulgarian Internet Space through online participant observation in forums and websites reviews and on the other hand, on semi-structured interviews with different types of users of the virtual platforms found, made both face to face and online and finally online participant observation at the same platforms. It is based on some contributions of the ethnographic work of Christine Hine in virtual environments and the notions of time and space of Barbara Czarniawska contextualized in the modern form of organization that occurs in a network of multiple and fragmented contexts across many movements.

Epidemiological aspects of influenza A related to climatic conditions during and after a pandemic period in the city of Salvador, northeastern Brazil

During the influenza pandemic of 2009, the A(H1N1)pdm09, A/H3N2 seasonal and influenza B viruses were observed to be co-circulating with other respiratory viruses. To observe the epidemiological pattern of the influenza virus between May 2009-August 2011, 467 nasopharyngeal aspirates were collected from children less than five years of age in the city of Salvador. In addition, data on weather conditions were obtained. Indirect immunofluorescence, real-time transcription reverse polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and sequencing assays were performed for influenza virus detection. Of all 467 samples, 34 (7%) specimens were positive for influenza A and of these, viral characterisation identified Flu A/H3N2 in 25/34 (74%) and A(H1N1)pdm09 in 9/34 (26%). Influenza B accounted for a small proportion (0.8%) and the other respiratory viruses for 27.2% (127/467). No deaths were registered and no pattern of seasonality or expected climatic conditions could be established. These observations are important for predicting the evolution of epidemics and in implementing future anti-pandemic measures.