Effect of the Hofmeister anions upon the swelling of a self-assembled pH-responsive hydrogel

We report the effect of a range of monovalent sodium salts on the molecular equilibrium swelling of a simple synthetic microphase separated poly(methyl methacrylate)-block-poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-block-poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA88-b-PDEA223-b-PMMA88) pH-responsive hydrogel. Sodium acetate, sodium chloride, sodium bromide, sodium iodide, sodium nitrate and sodium thiocyanate were selected for study at controlled ionic strength and pH; all salts are taken from the Hofmeister series (HS). The influence of the anions on the expansion of the hydrogel was found to follow the reverse order of the classical HS. The expansion ratio of the gel measured in solutions containing the simple sodium halide salts (NaCl, NaBr, and NaI) was found to be strongly related to parameters which describe the interaction of the ion with water; surface charge density, viscosity coefficient, and entropy of hydration. A global study which also included nonspherical ions (NaAce, NaNO3 and NaSCN) showed the strongest correlation with the viscosity coefficient. Our results are interpreted in terms of the Collins model,(1) where larger ions have more mobile water in the first hydration cage immediately surrounding the gel, therefore making them more adhesive to the surface of the stationary phase of the gel and ultimately reducing the level of expansion.

Nuclear magnetic resonance studies of molecular interactions and structures

This thesis is concerned with the investigation, by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, of the molecular interactions occurring in mixtures of benzene and cyclohexane to which either chloroform or deutero-chloroform has been added. The effect of the added polar molecule on the liquid structure has been studied using spin-lattice relaxation time, 1H chemical shift, and nuclear Overhauser effect measurements. The main purpose of the work has been to validate a model for molecular interaction involving local ordering of benzene around chloroform. A chemical method for removing dissolved oxygen from samples has been developed to encompass a number of types of sample, including quantitative mixtures, and its supremacy over conventional deoxygenation technique is shown. A set of spectrometer conditions, the use of which produces the minimal variation in peak height in the steady state, is presented. To separate the general diluting effects of deutero-chloroform from its effects due to the production of local order a series of mixtures involving carbon tetrachloride, instead of deutero-chloroform, have been used as non-interacting references. The effect of molecular interaction is shown to be explainable using a solvation model, whilst an approach involving 1:1 complex formation is shown not to account for the observations. It is calculated that each solvation shell, based on deutero-chloroform, contains about twelve molecules of benzene or cyclohexane. The equations produced to account for the T1 variations have been adapted to account for the 1H chemical shift variations in the same system. The shift measurements are shown to substantiate the solvent cage model with a cage capacity of twelve molecules around each chloroform molecule. Nuclear Overhauser effect data have been analysed quantitatively in a manner consistent with the solvation model. The results show that discrete shells only exist when the mole fraction of deutero-chloroform is below about 0.08.

Rolling bearing vibrations: the effects of varying compliance, manufacturing tolerances and wear

In this study some common types of Rolling Bearing vibrations are analysed in depth both theoretically and experimentally. The study is restricted to vibrations in the radial direction of bearings having pure radial load and a positive radial clearance. The general vibrational behaviour of such bearings has been investigated with respect to the effects of varying compliance, manufacturing tolerances and the interaction between the bearing and the machine structure into which it is fitted. The equations of motion for a rotor supported by a bearing in which the stiffness varies with cage position has been set up and examples of solutions,obtained by digital simulation. is given. A method to calculate amplitudes and frequencies of vibration components due to out of roundness of the inner ring and varying roller diameters has been developed. The results from these investigations have been combined with a theory for bearing/machine frame interaction using mechanical impedance technique, thereby facilitating prediction of the vibrational behaviour of the whole set up. Finally. the effects of bearing fatigue and wear have been studied with particular emphasis on the use of vibration analysis for condition monitoring purposes. A number of monitoring methods have been tried and their effectiveness discussed. The experimental investigation was carried out using two purpose built rigs. For the purpose of analysis of the experimental measurements a digital mini computer was adapted for signal processing and a suite of programs was written. The program package performs several of the commonly used signal analysis processes and :include all necessary input and output functions.

A converter compensator for power factor control in 3-phase induction machines

The advent of the harmonic neutralised shunt Converter Compensator as a practical means of reactive power compensation in power transmission systems has cleared ground for wider application of this type of equipment. An experimental 24-pulse voltage sourced convector has been successfully applied in controlling the terminal power factor of a 1.5kW, 240V three phase cage rotor induction motor, whose winding has been used in place of the usual phase shifting transformers. To achieve this, modifications have been made to the conventional stator winding of the induction machine. These include an unconventional phase spread and facilitation of compensator connections to selected tapping points between stator coils to give a three phase winding with a twelve phase connection to the twenty four pulse converter. Theoretical and experimental assessments of the impact of these modifications and attachment of the compensator have shown that there is a slight reduction in the torque developed at a given slip and in the combined system efficiency. There is also an increase in the noise level, also a consequence of the harmonics. The stator leakage inductance gave inadequate coupling reactance between the converter and the effective voltage source, necessitating the use of external inductors in each of the twelve phases. The terminal power factor is fully controllable when the induction machine is used either as a motor or as a generator.

Mixed-frequency testing of induction machines using inverters

This work has concentrated on the testing of induction machines to determine their temperature rise at full-load without mechanically coupling to a load machine. The achievements of this work are outlined as follows. 1. Four distinct categories of mixed-frequency test using an inverter have been identified by the author. The simulation results of these tests as well as the conventional 2-supply test have been analysed in detail. 2. Experimental work on mixed-frequency tests has been done on a small (4 kW) squirrel cage induction machine using a voltage source PWM inverter. Two out of the four categories of test suggested have been tested and the temperature rise results were found to be similar to the results of a direct loading test. Further, one of the categories of test proposed has been performed on a 3.3 kW slip-ring induction machine for the conformation of the rotor values. 3. A low current supply mixed-frequency test-rig has been proposed. For this purpose, a resonant bank was connected to the DC link of the inverter in order to maintain the exchange of power between the test machine and the resonant bank instead of between the main supply and the test machine. The resonant bank was then replaced with a special electro-mechanical energy storage unit. The current of the main power supply was then reduced in amplitude. 4. A variable inertia test for full load temperature rise testing of induction machines has been introduced. This test is purely mechanical in nature and does not require any electrical connection of the test machine to any other machine. It has the advantage of drawing very little net power from the supply.

A sulphonate based hydrogel for nucleus pulposus repair

Introduction: Lower back pain treatment and compensation costs >$80 billion overall in the US. 75% of back pain is due to disc degeneration in the lumbar region of the spine. Current treatment comprises of painkillers and bed rest or as a more radical solution – interbody cage fusion. In the early stages of disc degeneration the patient would benefit from addition of an injectable gel which polymerises in situ to support the degenerated nucleus pulposus. This involves a material which is an analogue of the natural tissue capable of restoring the biomechanical properties of the natural disc. The nucleus pulposus of the intervertebral disc is an example of a natural proteoglycan consisting of a protein core with negatively charged keratin and chondroitin sulphate attached. As a result of the high fixed charge density of the proteoglycan, the matrix exerts an osmotic swelling pressure drawing sufficient water into support the spinal system. Materials and Methods: NaAMPs (sodium 2- acrylamido 2-methyl propane sulphonic acid) and KSPA (potassium 3- sulphopropyl acrylate) were selected as monomers, the sulphonate group being used to mimic the natural sulphate group. These are used in dermal applications involving chronic wounds and have acceptably low cytotoxicity. Other hydrophilic carboxyl, amide and hydroxyl monomers such as 2-hydroxyethyl acrylamide, ß-carboxyethyl acrylate, acryloyl morpholine, and polyethylene glycol (meth)acrylate were used as diluents together with polyethyleneglycol di(meth)acrylate and hydrophilic multifunctional macromers as cross-linker. Redox was the chosen method of polymerisation and a range of initiators were investigated. Components were packaged in two solutions each containing a redox pair. A dual syringe method of injection into the cavity was used, the required time for polymerisation is circa 3-7 minutes. The final materials were tested using a Bohlin CVO Rheometer cycling from 0.5-25Hz at 37oC to measure the modulus. An in-house compression testing method was developed, using dialysis tubing to mimic the cavity, the gels were swelled in solutions of various osmolarity and compressed to ~ 20%. The pre-gel has also been injected into sheep spinal segments for mechanical compression testing to demonstrate the restoration of properties upon use of the gel. Results and Discussion: Two systems resulted using similar monomer compositions but different initiation and crosslinking agents. NaAMPs and KSPA were used together at a ratio of ~1:1 in both systems with 0.25-2% crosslinking agent, diacrylate or methacrylate. The two initiation systems were ascorbic acid/oxone, and N,N,N,N - tetramethylethylenediamine (TEMED)/ potassium persulphate. These systems produced gelation within 3-7 and 3-5 minutes respectively. Storage of the two component systems was shown to be stable for approximately one month after mixing, in the dark, refrigerated at 1-4oC. The gelation was carried out at 37oC. Literature values for the natural disc give elastic constants ranging from 3-8kPa. The properties of the polymer can be tailored by altering crosslink density and monomer composition and are able to match those of the natural disc. It is possible to incorporate a radio-opaque (histodenz) to enable x-ray luminescence during and after injection. At an inclusion level of 5% the gel is clearly visible and polymerisation and mechanical properties are not altered. Conclusion: A two-pac injection system which will polymerise in situ, that can incorporate a radio-opaque, has been developed. This will reinforce the damaged nucleus pulposus in degenerative disc disease restoring adequate hydration and thus biomechanical properties. Tests on sheep spine segments are currently being carried out to demonstrate that a disc containing the gel has similar properties to an intact disc in comparison to one with a damaged nucleus.

The single-phase induction motor:a critical appraisal of the rotating-field and cross-field theories with particular reference to skin effect

The purpose of this thesis is twofold: to examine the validity of the rotating-field and cross-field theories of the single-phase induction motor when applied to a cage rotor machine; and to examine the extent to which skin effect is likely to modify the characteristics of a cage rotor machine. A mathematical analysis is presented for a single-phase induction motor in which the rotor parameters are modified by skin effect. Although this is based on the usual type of ideal machine, a new form of model rotor allows approximations for skin effect phenomena to be included as an integral part of the analysis. Performance equations appropriate to the rotating-field and cross-field theories are deduced, and the corresponding explanations for the steady-state mode of operation are critically examined. The evaluation of the winding currents and developed torque is simplified by the introduction of new dimensionless factors which are functions of the resistance/reactance ratios of the rotor and the speed. Tables of the factors are included for selected numerical values of the parameter ratios, and these are used to deduce typical operating characteristics for both cage and wound rotor machines. It is shown that a qualitative explanation of the mode of operation of a cage rotor machine is obtained from either theory; but the operating characteristics must be deduced from the performance equations of the rotating-field theory, because of the restrictions on the values of the rotor parameters imposed by skin effect.

Simple one-electron invariants of molecular chirality

Pseudoscalar measures of electronic chirality for molecular systems are derived using the spectral moment theory applied to the frequency-dependent rotational susceptibility. In this scheme a one-electron chirality operator κ^ naturally emerges as a quantum counterpart of the triple scalar product, involving velocity, acceleration and second acceleration. Averaging κ^ over an electronic state vector gives rise to an additive chirality invariant (κ-index), considered as a quantitative measure of chirality. A simple computational technique for quick calculation of the κ-index is developed and various structural classes (cyclic hydrocarbons, cage-shaped systems, etc.) are studied. Reasonable behaviour of the chirality index is demonstrated. The chirality changes during the β-turn formation in Leu-Enkephalin is presented as a useful example of the chirality analysis for conformational transitions.

Structural studies of high dispersion H3PW12O40/SiO2 solid acid catalysts

Highly dispersed H3PW12O40/SiO2 catalysts with loadings between 3.6 and 62.5 wt% have been synthesised and characterised. The formation of a chemically distinct interfacial HPW species is identified by XPS, attributed to pertubation of W atoms within the Keggin cage in direct contact with the SiO2 surface. EXAFS confirms the Keggin unit remains intact for all loadings, while NH3 adsorption calorimetery reveals the acid strength >0.14 monolayers of HPW is loading invariant with initial ΔHads = −164 kJ mol−1. Lower loading catalysts exhibit weaker acidity which is attributed to an inability of highly dispersed clusters to form crystalline water. For reactions involving non-polar hydrocarbons the interfacial species where the accessible tungstate is highest confer the greatest reactivity, while polar chemistry is favoured by higher loadings which can take advantage of the H3PW12O40 pseudo-liquid phase available within supported multilayers. © the Owner Societies 2006.

Development of photosensitive liposomes for the controlled release of drugs

The facility to controlled triggered release from a “cage” system remains a key requirement for novel drug delivery. Earlier studies have shown that Bis-Azo PC based photosensitive liposomes are beneficial for drug delivery. Thus, the aim of this project was to develop photosensitive liposomes that can be used for the controlled release of drugs through UV irradiation, particularly therapeutic agents for the treatment of psoriasis. Bis-Azo PC was successfully synthesized and incorporated into a range of liposomal formulations, and these liposomes were applied for the controlled release of BSA-FITC. Bis-Azo PC sensitized liposomes were prepared via interdigitation fusion method. IFV containing optimum cholesterol amount in terms of protein loading, stability and photo-trigger release of protein was investigated. Further studies investigated the stability and triggered release of the HMT from IFV. Finally, permeation behavior of HMT and HMT-entrapped IFV through rat skin was examined using Franz cell. Results from protein study indicated that the stable entrapment of the model protein was feasible as shown through fluorescence spectroscopy and maximum of 84% protein release from IFV after 12 min of UV irradiation. Moreover, stability studies indicated that IFV were more stable at 4 0C as compared to 25 0C. Hence, DPPC:Chol:Bis-Azo PC (16:2:1) based IFV was chosen for the controlled release of HMT and these studies exhibited that photo-trigger release and stability data of HMT-entrapped IFV are in line with the protein results. Franz cell work inferred that HMT-entrapped IFV attributed to slower skin permeation as compared to HMT. CLSM also demonstrated that HMT can be used as a fluorescent label for the in vitro skin study. Overall, the work highlighted in this thesis has given useful insight into the potentials of Bis-Azo PC based IFV as a promising carrier for the treatment of psoriasis.

A comparison of breathing patterns of normal full term infants in supine versus right side-lying during quiet and active behavioral sleep states

This study investigated the effect of sleep position on breathing patterns of normal full term infants during quiet and active behavioral sleep states. Tidal volume, percent contribution of rib cage to tidal volume, and respiration rate were measured via respiratory inductive plethysmography (RIP) and pneumotachograph (PNT) in ten infants sleeping in supine versus right side-lying. Data was collected immediately following two consecutive feedings. Paired t tests and ANOVA comparisons showed no significant differences between the two postures (p $<$.05) in mean tidal volume (supine, M = 19.16, right side, M = 22.45), percent contribution of rib cage to tidal volume (supine, M = 30.55, right side M = 33.20), or respiration rate (supine, M = 49.13, right side, M = 49.37) during quiet sleep. Comparisons also showed no significant differences between the two postures (p $<$.05) in mean tidal volume (supine, M = 18.89, right side, M = 20.12), percent contribution of rib cage to tidal volume (supine, M = 6.43, right side, M = 6.97) or respiration rate (supine, M = 62.18, right side, M = 61.04) during active sleep. Therefore, no differences were found in the three respiratory variables measured between the supine and right side-lying positions. These findings suggest that infants may be positioned in either sleep position without detriment to respiratory function. This information may benefit occupational therapists and other health professionals involved in the education of parents on infant positioning and their respective advantages. ^

The interactive effects of predators, resources, and disturbance on freshwater snail populations from the Everglades

The origins of population dynamics depend on interplay between abiotic and biotic factors; the relative importance of each changing across space and time. Predation is a central feature of ecological communities that removes individuals (consumption) and alters prey traits (non-consumptive). Resource quality mitigates non-consumptive predator effects by stimulating growth and reproduction. Disturbance resets predator-prey interactions by removing both. I integrate experiments, time-series analysis, and performance trials to examine the relative importance of these on the population dynamics of a snail species by studying a variety of their traits. A review of ninety-three published articles revealed that snail abundance was much less in the Everglades and similar ecosystems compared to all other freshwater ecosystems considered. Separating consumptive from non-consumptive (cues) predator effects at different phosphorous levels with an experiment determined that phosphorous stimulated, but predator cues inhibited snail growth (34% vs. 23%), activity (38% vs. 53%), and reproductive effort (99% vs. 90%) compared to controls. Cues induced taller shells and smaller openings and moved to refugia where they reduced periphyton by 8%. Consumptive predator effects were minor in comparison. In a reciprocal transplant cage experiment along a predator cue and phosphorous gradient created by a canal, snails grew 10% faster and produced 37% more eggs far from the canal (fewer cues) when fed phosphorous-enriched periphyton from near the canal. Time-series analysis at four sites and predator performance trials reveal that phosphorous-enriched regions support larger snail populations, seasonal drying removes snails at all sites, crayfish negatively affect populations in enriched regions, and molluscivorous fish consume snails in the wet season. Combining these studies reveals interplay between resources, predators, and seasonality that limit snail populations in the Everglades and lead to their low abundance compared to other freshwater ecosystems. Resource quality is emerging as the critical factor because improving resources profoundly improved growth and reproduction; seasonal drying and predation become important at times and places. This work contributes to the general understanding in ecology of the relative importance of different factors that structure populations and provides evidence that bolsters monitoring efforts to assess the Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan that show phosphorous enrichment is a major driver of ecosystem change.

Exploring the role of large predators in marsh food webs: evidence for a behaviorally-mediated trophic cascade

The influence of large predators on lower trophic levels in oligotrophic, structurally complex, and frequently disturbed aquatic environments is generally thought to be limited. We looked for effects of large predators in two semi-permanent, spikerush-dominated marshes by excluding large fish (>12 mm body depth) and similarly sized herpetofauna from 1 m2 cages (exclosures) for 2 weeks. The exclosures allowed for colonization by intermediate (in size and trophic position) consumers, such as small fish, shrimp, and crayfish. Exclosures were compared to control cages that allowed large fish to move freely in and out. At the end of the experiment, intermediate-consumer densities were higher in exclosures than in controls at both sites. Decapod crustaceans, especially the riverine grass shrimp (Palaemonetes paludosus), accounted for the majority of the response. Effects of large fish on shrimp were generally consistent across sites, but per capita effects were sensitive to estimates of predator density. Densities of intermediate consumers in our exclosures were similar to marsh densities, while the open controls had lower densities. This suggests that these animals avoided our experimental controls because they were risky relative to the surrounding environment, while the exclosures were neither avoided nor preferred. Although illuminating about the dynamics of open-cage experiments, this finding does not influence the main results of the study. Small primary consumers (mostly small snails, amphipods, and midges) living on floating periphyton mats and in flocculent detritus (“floc”) were less abundant in the exclosures, indicative of a trophic cascade. Periphyton mat characteristics (i.e., biomass, chlorophyll a, TP) were not clearly or consistently affected by the exclosure, but TP in the floc was lower in exclosures. The collective cascading effects of large predators were consistent at both sites despite differences in drought frequency, stem density, and productivity.

A model for continuous measurement of drilled shaft diameter during construction

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) of deep foundations has become an integral part of the industry's standard manufacturing processes. It is not unusual for the evaluation of the integrity of the concrete to include the measurement of ultrasonic wave speeds. Numerous methods have been proposed that use the propagation speed of ultrasonic waves to check the integrity of concrete for drilled shaft foundations. All such methods evaluate the integrity of the concrete inside the cage and between the access tubes. The integrity of the concrete outside the cage remains to be considered to determine the location of the border between the concrete and the soil in order to obtain the diameter of the drilled shaft. It is also economic to devise a methodology to obtain the diameter of the drilled shaft using the Cross-Hole Sonic Logging system (CSL). Performing such a methodology using the CSL and following the CSL tests is performed and used to check the integrity of the inside concrete, thus allowing the determination of the drilled shaft diameter without having to set up another NDT device.^ This proposed new method is based on the installation of galvanized tubes outside the shaft across from each inside tube, and performing the CSL test between the inside and outside tubes. From the performed experimental work a model is developed to evaluate the relationship between the thickness of concrete and the ultrasonic wave properties using signal processing. The experimental results show that there is a direct correlation between concrete thicknesses outside the cage and maximum amplitude of the received signal obtained from frequency domain data. This study demonstrates how this new method to measuring the diameter of drilled shafts during construction using a NDT method overcomes the limitations of currently-used methods. ^ In the other part of study, a new method is proposed to visualize and quantify the extent and location of the defects. It is based on a color change in the frequency amplitude of the signal recorded by the receiver probe in the location of defects and it is called Frequency Tomography Analysis (FTA). Time-domain data is transferred to frequency-domain data of the signals propagated between tubes using Fast Fourier Transform (FFT). Then, distribution of the FTA will be evaluated. This method is employed after CSL has determined the high probability of an anomaly in a given area and is applied to improve location accuracy and to further characterize the feature. The technique has a very good resolution and clarifies the exact depth location of any void or defect through the length of the drilled shaft for the voids inside the cage. ^ The last part of study also evaluates the effect of voids inside and outside the reinforcement cage and corrosion in the longitudinal bars on the strength and axial load capacity of drilled shafts. The objective is to quantify the extent of loss in axial strength and stiffness of drilled shafts due to presence of different types of symmetric voids and corrosion throughout their lengths.^

Comparação entre técnicas de nitretação em cátodo oco e gaiola catódica na deposição de TiN

The plasma nitriding has been used in industrial and technological applications for large-scale show an improvement in the mechanical, tribological, among others. In order to solve problems arising in the conventional nitriding, for example, rings constraint (edge effect) techniques have been developed with different cathodes. In this work, we studied surfaces of commercially pure titanium (Grade II), modified by plasma nitriding treatment through different settings cathodes (hollow cathode, cathodic cage with a cage and cathodic cage with two cages) varying the temperature 350, 400 and 430oC, with the goal of obtaining a surface optimization for technological applications, evaluating which treatment generally showed better results under the substrate. The samples were characterized by the techniques of testing for Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), Raman spectroscopy, microhardness, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and a macroscopic analysis. Thus, we were able to evaluate the processing properties, such as roughness, topography, the presence of interstitial elements, hardness, homogeneity, uniformity and thickness of the nitrided layer. It was observed that all samples were exposed to nitriding modified relative to the control sample (no treatment) thus having increased surface hardness, the presence of TiN observed by XRD as per both Raman and a significant change in the roughness of the treated samples . It was found that treatment in hollow cathode, despite having the lowest value of microhardness between treated samples, was presented the lowest surface roughness, although this configuration samples suffer greater physical aggressiveness of treatment