Gobernabilidad democrática: conceptualización

Distintos autores han destacado que cuando nos referimos a la gobernabilidad estamos utilizando un concepto polisémico: “término que adquiere una connotación imprecisa y ambigua” “que mueve inevitablemente a la confusión”; “palabra atrapatodo” o “concepto elusivo”. No sólo no existe consenso acerca del uso del término, sino que en distintas ocasiones es utilizado en sentido marcadamente opuesto. En este marco, cualquier acercamiento al análisis de la relación entre educación y gobernabilidad democrática exige una breve aproximación al debate existente acerca de este último concepto y una explicitación acerca del significado que le daremos al mismo en el presente artículo.

Cultura Kichwa, interculturalidad y gobernabilidad

La idea de ”civilizar al indio”, integrándolo a la modernidad es un concepto que se ha mantenido como una columna vertebral en la colonia y la república. En los últimos años, principalmente en la década de los años 60, 70, 80, organismos multilaterales como el Banco Mundial, Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo, así como el Gobierno de los EEUU, pusieron especial énfasis en definir propuestas orientadas a lograr que las comunidades indias se integren al desarrollo, propuestas que sacrificaban la identidad indígena y eran víctimas de una especie de transfusión de culturas, acciones que se sumaban a los esfuerzos y pretensiones de la sociedad dominante, en lograr incorporar a la población indígena al sistema.

Gobernabilidad, democracia y derechos humanos

La procedencia de la gobernabilidad, la democracia y los derechos humanos, se plantean comúnmente como un hecho dado, que no admite duda. Como si se tratase de elementos indisolublemente ligados entre sí, sobre los cuales no vale argumentar, debiéndonos restringir a buscar los mecanismos más adecuados para su consolidación y difusión. Como si se tratase de elementos políticamente asépticos. Por ello, pocos se preguntan sobre ¿cuál es el objetivo que persiguen?, ¿a qué tipo de gobernabilidad y democracia nos referimos?; ¿en el marco de qué formación económica y social nos ubica esa especie de asepsia política?; ¿cuál es el papel que juegan en el desarrollo histórico de la humanidad? El presente análisis tratará de explicar esas interrogantes.

El contexto teórico político de la gobernabilidad y la democracia en América Latina: la crisis actual del Estado y la política

Considerar la cuestión de la crisis del Estado y la política es imprescindible dado que está claro que en nuestra región no podemos partir de que en la mayoría de las sociedades latinoamericanas el entramado institucional vigente canaliza las necesidades y expectativas de los distintos intereses y grupos sociales que componen nuestras sociedades; por el contrario, la experiencia reciente de las sociedades, por ejemplo la crisis argentina del 2000-2001, la guerra del gas en Bolivia del 2003, los actuales conflictos en Ecuador, la crisis política de gobernabilidad en México, etc., esto es, la fuerza de los movimientos sociales urbanos, campesinos, indígenas, populares, contestatarios, y la vitalidad de las distintas formas de resistencia y desencanto a las instituciones democráticas y las políticas económicas vigentes, nos alerta de las limitaciones que tendría un análisis puramente institucional de la democracia o la gobernabilidad. Por el contrario, las instituciones existentes deben valorarse críticamente debido a que se oponen, en general, a la dinámica real de la sociedad y a las diversas manifestaciones de rechazo popular a los procesos de modernización y democracia en curso.

Democracia participativa y derechos humanos

A lo largo de la década de los 90, numerosos países de América Latina y el Caribe vivieron el inicio de un nuevo ciclo de protestas sociales que, en cuestionamiento de las políticas neoliberales imperantes, fue protagonizado en gran medida por movimientos sociales y populares distintos de aquellos que habían ocupado la escena de la contestación social en décadas pasadas. Esta irrupción en la ciudadela de la gobernabilidad política neoliberal de los sectores sociales más castigados por la aplicación de este recetario (campesinos e indígenas, los sin trabajo y sin tierra, los trabajadores y sectores urbanos empobrecidos) no sólo abrió nuevos horizontes de futuro -agrietando la hegemonía del pensamiento único- sino que significó también el desarrollo de una intensa experimentación democrática, de reconstitución de alternativas societales, de reapropiación social de lo público y revitalización y ampliación de la autonomía que caracterizaron la emergencia de estos movimientos.

Movimientos sociales, democracia y gobernabilidad neoliberal en América Latina

A lo largo de la década de los 90, numerosos países de América Latina y el Caribe vivieron el inicio de un nuevo ciclo de protestas sociales que, en cuestionamiento de las políticas neoliberales imperantes, fue protagonizado en gran medida por movimientos sociales y populares distintos de aquellos que habían ocupado la escena de la contestación social en décadas pasadas. Esta irrupción en la ciudadela de la gobernabilidad política neoliberal de los sectores sociales más castigados por la aplicación de este recetario (campesinos e indígenas, los sin trabajo y sin tierra, los trabajadores y sectores urbanos empobrecidos) no sólo abrió nuevos horizontes de futuro -agrietando la hegemonía del pensamiento único- sino que significó también el desarrollo de una intensa experimentación democrática, de reconstitución de alternativas societales, de reapropiación social de lo público y revitalización y ampliación de la autonomía que caracterizaron la emergencia de estos movimientos.

Democracia participativa y derechos humanos

El presente artículo pretende vincular la noción de democracia participativa con el respeto y desarrollo de los derechos humanos. Para ello partiremos por definir la democracia y sus elementos esenciales, luego establecer la relación que existe entre estos elementos y los derechos humanos en su integralidad para finalmente desarrollar las formas en que la democracia ha venido aconteciendo hasta llegar al modelo de participación, hacia el cual parece dirigirse buena parte de los experimentos democráticos hoy en día, descubriendo en dichas experiencias los avances que implican así como sus posibles desviaciones.

Exploring the spatial relations between soil physical properties and apparent electrical conductivity

Relations between the apparent electrical conductivity of the soil (ECa) and top- and sub-soil physical properties were examined for two arable fields in southern England (Crowmarsh Battle Farms and the Yattendon Estate). The spatial variation of ECa and the soil properties was explored geostatistically. The variogram ranges showed that ECa varied on a similar spatial scale to many of the soil physical properties in both fields. Several features in the map of kriged predictions of ECa were also evident in maps of the soil properties. In addition, the correlation coefficients showed a strong relation between ECa and several soil properties. A moving correlation analysis enabled differences in the relations between ECa and the soil properties to be examined within the fields. The results indicated that relations were inconsistent; they were stronger in some areas than others. A regression of ECa on the principal component scores of the leading components for both fields showed that the first two components accounted for a large proportion of the variance in ECa, whereas the others accounted for little or none. For Crowmarsh topsoil sand and clay, loss on ignition and volumetric water measured in the autumn had large correlations on the first component, and for Yattendon they were large for topsoil sand and clay, and autumn and spring volumetric water. The cross-variograms suggested strong coregionalization between ECa and several soil physical properties; in particular subsoil sand and silt at Crowmarsh, and subsoil sand and clay at Yattendon. The structural correlations from the linear model of coregionalization confirmed the strength of the relations between ECa and the subsoil properties. Nevertheless, no one property was consistently important for both fields. Although a map of ECa can indicate the general patterns of spatial variation in the soil, it is not a substitute for information on soil properties obtained by sampling and analysing the soil. Nevertheless, it could be used to guide further sampling. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Edaphic influences on plant community adaptation in the Chiquibul forest of Belize

Edaphic variables figure significantly in plant community adaptations in tropical ecosystems but are often difficult to resolve because of the confounding influence of climate. Within the Chiquibul forest of Belize, large areas of Ultisols and Inceptisols occur juxtaposed within a larger zone of similar climate, permitting unambiguous assessment of edaphic contributions to forest composition. Wet chemical analyses, X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy were employed to derive chemical (pH, exchangeable cations, CEC, total and organic C, total trace elements) and physical (texture, mineralogy) properties of four granite-derived Ustults from the Mountain Pine Ridge plateau and four limestone-derived Ustepts from the San Pastor region. The soils of these two regions support two distinct forests, each possessing a species composition reflecting the many contrasting physicochemical properties of the underlying soil. Within the Mountain Pine Ridge forest, species abundance and diversity is constrained by nutrient deficiencies and water-holding limitations imposed by the coarse textured, highly weathered Ultisols. As a consequence, the forest is highly adapted to seasonal drought, frequent fires and the significant input of atmospherically derived nutrients. The nutrient-rich Inceptisols of the San Pastor region, conversely, support an abundant and diverse evergreen forest, dominated by Sabal mauritiiformis, Cryosophila stauracantha and Manilkara spp. Moreover, the deep, fine textured soils in the depressions of the karstic San Pastor landscape collect and retain during the wet season much available water, thereby serving as refugia during particularly long periods of severe drought. To the extent that the soils of the Chiquibul region promote and maintain forest diversity, they also confer redundancy and resilience to these same forests and, to the broader ecosystem, of which they are a central part. (C) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Trace fossils and pseudofossils from the Wealden strata (non-marine Lower Cretaceous) of southern England

The trace fossils of the Wealden (non-marine Lower Cretaceous) of southern England are described. Sixteen invertebrate ichnotaxa include Agrichnium fimbriatus, Beaconites antarcticus, B. barretti, Cochlichnus anguineus, Diplichnites triassicus, Diplocraterion parallelum, Lockeia siliquaria, L. serialis, Monocraterion cf. tentaculum, Palaeophycus striatus, P. tubularis, Planolites montanus, Protovirgularia rugosa, Rhizocorallium isp., Scoyenia cf. gracilis, Unisulcus minutus, insect and root traces. Tetrapod tracks and trackways include tridactyl Iguanodontipus burreyi and other ornithopods, theropod, and tetradactyl sauropod (or possibly ankylosaur), together with extensive dinosaur tramplings. Coprolites are referred to two broad types: spiral, with or without included fish scales (attributable to sharks), and elongate and irregular (possibly produced by reptiles). A skinprint and two types of pseudofossil are also included. Five environmental associations are recognised: (1) lacustrine/lagoonal; (2) brackish incursions (flooding events) into the lacustrine/lagoonal environment; (3) a marginal lacustrine association with fluvial input; (4) a fluvial (lacustrine delta) association; (5) floodplain sediments (seasonal wetlands). These associations are assigned to the fluvial-lacustrine Scoyenia Ichnofacies and the incursions to Glossifungites lchnofacies. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Managing land-use conflict around urban centres: Australian poultry farmer attitudes towards relocation

In analysing the release of agricultural land to urban development, the urban fringe literature has not focused on whether farmers are able to relocate from the urban fringe to remoter rural areas. Through interviews with representatives from the poultry industry in two Australian states, this paper identifies that poultry farm relocation strategies are constrained by off-farm economic relations, the land-use planning system and financial considerations. Closely aligned to these constraints on relocation is the on-going process of poultry farm intensification, which is seen as presenting rising problems for land-use management around expanding metropolitan centres in Australia. Of particular concern is the potential for amenity complaints and associated land-use conflicts, which have not been comprehensively investigated. Recognising that existing environmental and land-use planning controls are ineffective in producing amicable solutions when conflict involving poultry farming is at its most intense, the paper calls for improvements to the regulatory system, including greater consideration for how the process of relocation can be encouraged. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Excluding exceptions: Housing non-affordability and the oppression of environmental sustainability?

This paper explores the provision of homes for less wealthy households in rural England. By allowing 'exceptions' to UK planning law to provide low-income housing for local residents, the national government seeks to secure dwellings for the less wealthy and so sustain socially mixed rural villages. This paper explores how the production of homes through the exception policy is not conducive to the construction of many new houses. The particular emphasis in the paper is on how responsible agents are discouraged from being more active in erecting new village homes for low-income households. Empirically, the paper draws on documents, interviews and a social survey in the counties of Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk to investigate the process of delivering rural exception homes. It is concluded that, despite Government assertions that a socially mixed countryside is desirable, the decision-making criteria that dominate the worldviews of agents in social housing provision work against this outcome. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Survival, Pb-uptake and behaviour of three species of earthworm in Pb treated soils determined using an OECD-style toxicity test and a soil avoidance test

Mature (clitellate) Eisenia andrei Bouche (ultra epigeic), Lumbricus rubellus Hoffmeister (epigeic), and Aporrectodea caliginosa (Savigny) (endogeic) earthworms were placed in soils treated with Pb(NO3)(2) to have concentrations in the range 1000 to 10 000 mg Pb kg(-1). After 28 days LC50(-95%confidence limit) (+95%confidence limit) values were E. andrei 5824(-361)(+898) mg Pb kg(-1), L. rubellus 2867(-193)(+145) mg Pb kg(-1) and A. caliginosa 2747(-304)(+239) mg Pb kg(-1) and EC50s for weight change were E. andrei 2841(-68)(+150) Pb kg(-1), L. rubellus 1303(-201)(+204) mg Pb kg(-1) and A. caliginosa 1208(-206)(+212) Mg Pb kg(-1). At any given soil Pb concentration, Pb tissue concentrations after 28 days were the same for all three earthworm species. In a soil avoidance test there was no difference between the behaviour of the different species. The lower sensitivity to Pb exhibited by E. andrei is most likely due to physiological adaptations associated with the modes of life of the earthworms, and could have serious implications for the use of this earthworm as the species of choice in standard toxicological testing. (c) 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.