Collapse of an avifauna : climate change appears to exacerbate habitat loss and degradation

Aim. We characterized changes in reporting rates and abundances of bird species over a period of severe rainfall deficiency and increasing average temperatures. We also measured flowering in eucalypts, which support large numbers of nectarivores characteristic of the region.

Location.  A 30,000-km2 region of northern Victoria, Australia, consisting of limited amounts of remnant native woodlands embedded in largely agricultural landscapes.

Methods. There were three sets of monitoring studies, pitched at regional  (survey programmes in 1995–97, 2004–05 and 2006–08), landscape (2002–03 and 2006–07) and site (1997–2008 continuously) scales. Bird survey techniques used a standard 2-ha, 20-min count method. We used Bayesian analyses of reporting rates to document statistically changes in the avifauna through time at each spatial scale.

Results. Bird populations in the largest remnants of native vegetation (up to 40,000 ha), some of which have been declared as national parks in the past decade, experienced similar declines to those in heavily cleared andscapes. All categories of birds (guilds based on foraging substrate, diet, nest site; relative mobility; geographical distributions) were affected similarly. We detected virtually no bird breeding in the latest survey periods. Eucalypt flowering has declined significantly over the past 12 years of drought.

Main conclusions. Declines in the largest woodland remnants commensurate with those in cleared landscapes suggest that reserve systems may not be relied upon to sustain species under climate change. We attribute population declines to low breeding success due to reduced food. Resilience of bird populations in this woodland system might be increased by active management to enhance habitat quality in existing vegetation and restoration of woodland in the more fertile parts of landscapes.

Conservation ecology and breeding biology of the white-browed treecreeper, Climacteris affinis

The White-browed Treecreeper Climacteris affinis is one of many woodland-dependent birds that are at risk from the encroachment of human-dominated land-uses into natural landscapes. The White-browed Treecreeper inhabits semi-arid woodlands in north-west Victoria, Australia, a vegetation community that has undergone extreme modification in the last century due to the expansion of agriculture in the region. Extant woodlands represent only 10% of the original woodland cover in the region, and are highly fragmented and disturbed in many districts. Thus, the survival of the White-browed Treecreeper may depend on active management. However, current knowledge of the ecology and biology of this species is virtually non-existent, and inadequate for informed and effective conservation actions. The aim of this thesis is to redress this situation and provide the ecological basis for sound conservation management of the species. The thesis consists of two parts: an investigation of habitat use at three spatial scales and a study of the social organization, nesting requirements, breeding behaviour and reproductive success of a population of White-browed Treecreepers. Fifty-six patches of remnant woodland in north-west Victoria were surveyed to determine the factors affecting the occurrence of the White-browed Treecreeper at the regional scale. It was detected in 16 patches, and was largely confined to two core districts - Yarrara and, Wyperfeld (Pine Plains). The floristic composition of the dominant tree species was an important determinant of patch occupancy, with the results providing quantitative support for the previously suspected affinity for Belah Casuarina pauper and Slender Cypress-pine Callitris gracilis — Buloke Allocasuarina luehmannii woodlands. However, the absence of the White-browed Treecreeper from several districts was due to factors other than a lack of appropriate habitat. Demographic isolation - the distance from the focal patch to the nearest population of the White-browed Treecreeper - was the most important variable in explaining variation in patch occupancy. Patches isolated from other treecreeper populations by more than 8.3 km in landscapes of non-preferred native vegetation, and 3 km in agricultural landscapes, were unlikely to support the White-browed Treecreeper. The impact of habitat loss and fragmentation on the capacity of individuals to move through the landscape (i.e. functional connectivity) is considered in relation to disruption to dispersal and migration, and the potential collapse of local metapopulations. Habitat use was then examined in a network of patches and linear strips of Belah woodland embedded in a predominantly cultivated landscape. A minimum area of 18.5 ha of Belah woodland was identified as the most important criterion for patch occupancy at the local scale. This landscape appeared to be permeable to movement by the White-browed Treecreeper, facilitated by the extensive network of linear habitat, and clusters of small to medium fragments. The third scale of habitat use investigated the frequency of use of 1-ha plots within tracts of occupied woodland. It is important to discriminate between habitat traits that operate at the population level, and those that act as proximate cues for habitat selection by individuals. Woodlands that have high tree density, extensive cover of low-stature shrubs, abundant lichen, a complex vertical structure, and relatively low cover of grass and herbs are likely to support larger populations of the White-browed Treecreeper. However, individuals appeared to be using tree dominance (positive) and tall shrub cover (negative) as proximate environmental stimuli for habitat selectivity. A relatively high cover of ground lichen, which probably reflects a ground layer with low disturbance and high structural complexity, was also a reliable indicator of habitat use. Predictive models were developed which could be used to plan vegetation management to enhance habitat for the White-browed Treecreeper. The results of the regional, landscape and patch-scale investigations emphasise that factors operating at multiple spatial scales influence the suitability of remnant vegetation as habitat for the White-browed Treecreeper. The White-browed Treecreeper is typical of many small Australian passerines in that it has high annual survival, small clutches, a long breeding season, multiple broods and relatively low reproductive rates. Reproductive effort is adjusted through the number of clutches laid rather than clutch size. They occupy relatively large, all-purpose territories throughout the year. However, unlike many group territorial birds, territory size was not related to the number of occupants. The White-browed Treecreeper nests in tree hollows. They select hollows with a southerly orientation where possible, and prefer hollows that were higher from the ground. At Yarrara, there was considerable spatial variation in hollow abundance that, in concert with territorial constraints, restricted the actual availability of hollows to less than the absolute abundance of hollows. Thus, the availability of suitable hollows may limit reproductive productivity in some territories, although the magnitude of this constraint on overall population growth is predicted to be small. However, lack of recruitment of hollow-bearing trees would increase the potential for hollow availability to limit population growth. This prospect is particularly relevant in grazed remnants and those outside the reserve system. Facultative cooperative breeding was confirmed, with groups formed through male philopatry. Consequently, natal dispersal is female-biased, although there was no skew in the sex ratio of the fledglings or the general adult population. Helpers were observed performing all activities associated with parenting except copulation and brooding. Cooperatively breeding groups enjoyed higher fledgling productivity than simple pairs, after statistically accounting for territory and parental quality. However, the difference reflected increased productivity in the 1999-breeding season only, when climatic conditions were more favourable than in 1998. Breeding commenced earlier in 1999, and all breeding units were more likely to attempt a second brood. However, only breeders with helpers were successful in fledging second brood young, and it was this difference that accounted for the overall discrepancy in productivity. The key mechanism for increased success in cooperative groups was a reduction hi the interval between first and second broods, facilitated by compensatory reductions in the level of care to the first brood. Thus, females with helpers probably achieved significant energetic savings during this period, which enabled them to re-lay sooner. Furthermore, they were able to recommence nesting when the fledglings from the first brood were younger because there were more adults to feed the dependent juveniles. The current utility, and possible evolutionary pathways, of cooperative breeding is examined from the perspective of both breeders and helpers. Breeders benefit through enhanced fledgling productivity in good breeding conditions and a reduction in the burden of parental care, which may impart significant energetic savings. Further, breeders may facilitate philopatry as a means for ensuring a minimum level of reproductive success. Helpers benefit through an increase in their inclusive fitness in the absence of opportunities for independent breeding (i.e. ecological constraints) and access to breeding vacancies in the natal or adjacent territories (i.e. benefits of philopatry). However, the majority of breeding unit-years comprised unassisted breeders, which suggests that pairs are selectively favoured under certain environmental or demographic conditions.

Contribution of multi-tenure reserve networks to biodiversity conservation

A consistent and integrated approach to nature conservation across the landscape and regardless of tenure is widely recognised as essential in ensuring the effective conservation of biodiversity. 'Multi-tenure reserve networks', which incorporate public and private lands managed for conservation, are considered a means of achieving landscape scale conservation. Biosphere Reserves (BR) and Conservation Management Networks (CMN) are characteristic models in Australia. This thesis aims to evaluate the role of such networks in protecting biodiversity, specifically by: (1) analysing the spatial configuration (size, shape, connectivity) of networks and their individual components; (2) evaluating the contribution of networks (in real terms and in reporting procedures) to biodiversity conservation objectives; (3) analysing the influence of the attitudes and perceptions of land managers on the functionality of networks; and (4) evaluating the influence of coordinating bodies on network functionality. In order to account for deficiencies in existing classifications of conservation lands, a new classification system was developed for this thesis - the Conservation Lands Classification. This classification incorporates conservation mechanisms on public and private lands and forms the basis for comparing network components in three Australian case studies - the Bookmark BR located in the Murray Mallee of South Australia, the Gippsland Plains CMN on the eastern Gippsland Plains of Victoria and the Grassy Box Woodlands CMN across the inland slopes of New South Wales. The spatial configuration of individual components within networks was measured using spatial analysis techniques within a geographic information system (GIS). GIS was also used to measure the contribution that networks made to a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system through the ecosystems they protected. The attitudes and perceptions of landowners and managers within the networks were obtained using questionnaires. Questionnaires were also sent to network coordinators. Statistical and descriptive analysis was conducted on the results. The sizes of individual components varied markedly between the three networks, however within each network public reserves were on average larger than private conservation lands. Although levels of physical connectivity varied between networks, Bookmark BR and Gippsland Plains CMN showed greater similarity to each other than to the Grassy Box Woodlands CMN. The findings raise important questions about the real and perceived differences in the BR and CMN models. All networks, and particularly those components outside the public protected area estate, contributed to enhancing the protection of ecosystems unrepresented or under-represented in the reserve system, although the extent of this contribution varied between networks. Trade-offs between reserve design efficiency and a contribution to a comprehensive, adequate and representative reserve system were evident between networks. Bookmark BR was characterised by high connectivity, strong reserve design integrity but a lower contribution to protecting under-reserved ecosystems, whereas the opposite was evident in the Grassy Box Woodlands CMN. Over 88% of managers considered their involvement in multi-tenure reserve networks to be a positive or very positive experience. A lack of resources and time for management were considered major limitations of these networks. The majority (80%) of private land managers within networks were willing to be included in a national reserve system of conservation lands. This has important implications for the Australian National Reserve System, which currently incorporates mostly public land. The changing nature of the network coordination arrangements suggests an organic fluid evolution of network structures is likely, contrasting with the desire for legalistic and administrative rigidity promoted by government agencies. The thesis concludes that all the networks studied contribute in varying degrees to biodiversity conservation. The key factors influencing the current and potential contribution that such networks make are: (1) the aims, directions and restrictions set by or imposed upon the coordinating body; and (2) the biophysical nature of the surrounding bioregion and resultant historical land use and tenure pattern. Although the successful operation of such 'multi-tenure' networks ultimately relies on the willing participation of private landholders, ongoing institutional support is likely to be required for maintaining networks in the longer term. Considering networks are increasingly formed outside of the influence of government institutions, this presents a significant challenge for effective coordinated conservation.

Lichen flora of the Mount Donna Buang Scenic Reserve, Victoria

This report investigated the lichen flora of the Mt Donna Buang Scenic Reserve in Victoria, There were several aims: to describe the lichens of the region, to produce a pictorial key enabling field identification and to determine any distribution patterns. A floristic survey covering approximately 50 square km was undertaken to determine lichen diversity of the region generally. Lichens were sampled along roads, tracks, walking trails and in sections of bush, taking into account forest type and, particularly, areas that were lichen rich. Seventy-five lichen species in 43 genera and 27 families were identified and described from the region. An unknown, species H, also was described. Of the 76 lichen species, 22 were crastose and the remainder macrolichens. The best represented families were: Cladoniaceae (8 species), Hypogymniaceae (6), Lobariaceae (7), Lecideaceae (6), Pannariaceae (6) and Parmeliaccae (6). This study described 12 species (17%) which previously were not known for Victoria and which are a first record for the state. These include: Cladonia sarmentosa (J.D. Hook & Taylor) Dodge, Graphis librata Knight, Parmelinopsis neodamaziana (Elix & Johnston) Elix & Hale, Pertusaria novaezelandiae Szatala, Placopsis pardlina f. microphylla Lamb, Porina leptalea AX. Sm., Pseudocyphellaria ardesiaca Galloway, Trapeliopsis congregant (Zahlbr.) Brako, Menegazzia myriotrema (Mull. Arg.) P. James, Bunodophoron scrobiculatum (Church. Bab,) Wedin, Parmelia testacea Stirton and Menegazzia purpurascens S. Louwhoff sp. nov.. The last eight species are new to the mainland and, apart from Menegazzia purpurascens, previously were known only from Tasmania. Five main elements of distribution were identified for the lichen flora of the Mt Donna Buang Scenic Reserve: cosmopolitan, austral/australasian, paleotropical, pantropical and western pacific. The majority of species (68%) had austral/australasian distributions, eleven (16%) were endemic to Australia and nine (13%) occurred only in Tasmania , Victoria and New Zealand. A pictorial, dichotomous key was constructed for the lichen flora of the Mt Donna Buang Scenic Reserve. Previously, keys to the lichen flora of Tasmanian rainforests were suggested as appropriate to similar areas in Victoria, however, the Victorian forests include a significant sclerophyll element The key presented is specific for the study site but is appropriate to similar regions in Victoria and has been tested in a number of these areas. The key was designed to be ‘user-friendly’ so that the experienced and inexperienced alike are able to use it. A more detailed investigation of the lichen flora of the Mt Donna Buang Scenic Reserve was carried out in order to determine distribution. A total of 50 quadrats, each 20m x 20m in size, were sampled. Within each, the dominant vegetation type was determined and individuals were identified and location noted. The cover abundance of each lichen species on each individual tree was estimated using a modified Braun-Blanquet scale. A total of 710 trees, representing 13 different species, were examined. Nothofagus cunninghamii (Hook.) Oerst, Eucalyptus regnans R Mull., Acacia dealbata Link, A. melanoxylon R. Br., Hedycarya angustifolia A. Cunn. and Atherosperma moschatum Labill. were the six most common tree species encountered at the study site. Nothofagus cunninghamii supported the greatest lichen diversity (39 species), although most species occurred on less than 10% of the trees. The majority of lichens occurring on N. cunninghamii A. melanoxylon, A. dealbata and H. angustifolia were foliose or crustose, those on Ł. regnans fruticose and foliose and those on A moschatum crustose. Bunodophoron australe was the only lichen species at the study site to occur on one host, Nothofagus cunninghamiL Many occurred on a number of different hosts, but were most common on one particular tree species. The distribution of lichens at the study site was analysed with a rnultivariate statistical package (PATN) which dealt with ‘pattern analysis’. The program ‘SSH’ in PATN which uses the Bray-Curtis ordination technique, was used to create scatterplots displaying the degree of dissimilarity between quadrats in terms of presence/absence of lichen species. The program ‘TWAY’ in PATN was used to construct a two way table to display which lichen species occurred in each vegetation type. The pattern analysis revealed that the lichens of the Mt Donna Buang Scenic Reserve were not restricted to any particular forest type, but particular lichens, or groups of lichens, tended to predominate in certain vegetation communities. This concurs with work done by others in Tasmanian forests. Quadrats which were situated in cool temperate rainforest were grouped more closely with each other than with quadrats in other vegetation types. These also supported the greatest number of lichen species. This was not surprising since N. cunninghamii the dominant tree species in cool temperate rainforest, supported the greatest lichen diversity.

Studies of the biology of four species of Dicranoloma

Populations of Dicranoloma billardierei (Brid) Par., D. dicarpum (Nees.) Par., D. menziesii (Tayl.) Par. and D. platycaulon (C. Muell) Dix, from two pockets of cool temperate rainforest within the Yarra Ranges National Park (Cement Creek and Myrtle Loop), were sampled for a period of two years to establish their reproductive biology. The population dynamics within quadrats of D. billardierei, D. menziesii and D. platycaulon at Cement Creek also was investigated over a two year period, through the seasonal recording of shoot loss and/or gain, The four species of Dicranoloma were dioicous and sexually dimorphic, with dwarf males epiphytic on the female plants. Antheridia were initiated before archegonia and required ca, 6 months to reach maturity, compared with 1 to 2 months for archegonia. More archegonia than antheridia occurred per inflorescence and were more variable Fertilization occurred during winter in D. billardierei and summer/ autumn in D. menziesii and D. platycaulon. The duration of the sporophyte cycle of D. menziesii was 12 months, shorter than that of D. billardierei and D. platycaulon which lasted for a period of 18 months to 2 years. In the latter two species an overlap of sporophyte generations occurred. This was particularly pronounced in D. billardierei as sporophytes remained in the swollen venter maturation stage for a period of 6 months. The duration of the sporophyte cycle could not be ascertained as few fruiting stems of D. dicarpum were found. All four species of Dicranoloma regenerated from fragments cultured in the laboratory, and only two of the species showed evidence of production of asexual propagules in the field. Dicranoloma dicarpum was found to produce gemmae, an observation which had not been recorded before, and most of the leaves on stems of D. platycaulon had detached subulas. Shoot loss was minimal in all four species, and when it did occur, (eg D. billardierei) it was attributed to disturbance by animals. Within quadrats there was an increase in shoot density which resulted from the development of innovation(s) and/or side branches rather than from the recruitment of new plants from spores or the regeneration of asexual propagules. The four species of Dicranoloma investigated were robust, perennial mosses and formed an important component of the bryophytes found within the study area. Dicranoloma menziesii was the predominant species establishing on a variety of substrata, particularly as an epiphyte on Nothofagus cunninghamii The other species were more selective in their choice of substratum. Dicranoloma platycaulon was found exclusively on the trunks of myrtle beech and D. billardierei on fallen logs and exposed roots. Dicranoloma dicarpum which was not common, grew as an epiphyte on myrtle beech and on rocks.

Resource use by the Eastern Grey Kangaroo and the Black Wallaby in a managed remnant woodland community

This work studies the interactions and relationships that exist between Eastern Grey Kangaroos and Black Wallabies in their utilisation of spatial and trophic resources in a managed remnant woodland community. The thesis provides a closer understanding of the way in which these species impact upon their habitats. The Coranderrk Reserve, near Healesville in eastern Victoria, Australia was the study site. A floristic analysis of the communities of the study site was conducted. This consisted of plant biomass measurements, estimates of plant abundance and cover determination. Faecal pellets from Eastern Grey Kangaroos and Black Wallabies were collected from ten vegetation communities during three different plant productivity periods. The spatial and temporal distribution of the animals was identified by analysing the frequency of occurrence of faecal pellets in the various communities. The use of faecal pellet density as a measure of habitat utilisation was examined. Eastern Grey Kangaroos utilised communities which were characterised by the presence of a dense grassy statum. Black Wallabies were able to utilise all of the communities of the study site regardless of their floristic composition. A reference herbarium of the leaf epidermis of 233 possible forage plant species was accumulated. These epidermal specimens were prepared for Confocal Scanning Laser Microscopy. The information gained was enhanced and stored digitally. Diagnostic information critical for the identification of plant epidermal fragments was assembled into a computer database. This was used to assist in the recognition of unknown epidermal fragments in macropodid faeces. These epidermal plant recognition techniques enabled a list of the contents of Eastern Grey Kangaroo and Black Wallaby faeces during the sampling periods in the individual communities, to be accumulated. Eastern Grey Kangaroos utilised forage which consisted largely of grass and their diets were similar regardless of their feeding sites or the time of the year. Black Wallaby diets were heterogenous with wide variations over space and time observed. The implications of these findings for current wildlife management practices were considered. Black Wallaby and Eastern Grey Kangaroo herbivory have significant impacts on ecosystem integrity. Management strategies should seek to establish ecologically sustainable populations of both species in remnant woodlands where conservation values are important.

Ecology of Pittosporum undulatum Vent. (Pittosporaceae) an environmental weed in south east Australia

Pittosporum undulatum Vent. (Sweet Pittosporum) is a densely foliaged tall shrub or small tree, native to the wet forests of south east Australia, This species now functions as a serious environmental weed in a range of habitats in Australia and on other continents and islands throughout the temperate, sub-tropical and tropical zones. This study investigated some of the ecological causes and consequences of P. undulatum invasion across a range of habitat types in south east Australia. Key aspects of P. undulatum biology and ecology investigated in the current study include; patterns of morphological variation across the range of habitats occupied (as a measure of the species’ plasticity), dispersal ecology and seed germinability, population structure and spatial pattern, community relationships and the ecological impacts of invasion. Phenotypic plasticity is considerable in P. undulatum. No clear patterns of geographic variation emerged from a study of leaf morphological attributes across the current range of this species on mainland south east Australia. The pattern of morphological variation is particularly complex in Victoria, where the invasion of this species is most advanced. The species’ adaptability to a range of environments and environmental conditions will likely promote further range expansion. The abundant winter fruit crop produced by functionally female P. undulatum plants attracts a suite of generalist opportunistic frugivores, which feed on P. undulatum fruits and seeds at various stages of fruit dehiscence, thereby enhancing dispersal opportunities for this species. P. undulatum seed collected from natural and invasive populations, at two stages of fruit maturity and from the scats and pellets of dispersal agents, displayed high germinability. European Blackbirds and Pied Currawongs are implicated as the main avian dispersal agents of P undulatum in south east Australia. The broader ecological implications of developing relationships between invasive fleshy-fruited bird-dispersed plant species and adaptive frugivores are likely to be considerable. The distribution of P. undulatutn seedlings was significantly negatively correlated with adult conspecifics and significantly positively correlated with trees and shrubs of other genera. This pattern reflects the importance of both firugivorous dispersal agents and the species’ germination and establishment requirements, in shaping the contagious distribution pattern typical of this species. These analyses suggest that recruitment opportunities for conspecific seedlings are limited beneath the canopy of adult conspecifics. Densities of P. undulatum were on average, 2.7 times higher in invaded populations, compared to the natural populations sampled. A male-bias was evident in all populations and no relationships between reproductive activity and the density of seedlings and juveniles were evident. Invading populations of P. undulatum impose substantial changes on ecosystem-level properties and functions. Mean species richness and cover-abundance declined notably once P. undulatum cover-abundance exceeded 20% at the invaded sites and 60% at the natural sites sampled. The natural communities sampled displayed comparatively greater resilience to the competitive effects of P. undulatum, but community attributes were affected at high densities and cover-abundance of this species. The cover-abundance of herbs and grasses declined most substantially with increasing P. undulatum at invaded sites, whereas, at the natural sites sampled, the species’ structural analogues appeared to be most affected by increasing P. undulatum cover-abundance. This study has demonstrated that the ecological consequences of P. undulatum population expansion are substantial and contribute to changes in the composition and successional trajectory of affected communities. These processes ultimately lead to the loss and simplification of biodiversity values and the homogenisation of affected habitats. P. undulatum has the potential to emerge as one of south east Australia's most serious environmental weed species.

Roadian – Wordian (Guadalupian, Middle Permian) global palaeobiogeography of brachiopods

A database of 4471 Roadian–Wordian (Guadalupian, Middle Permian) occurrences of 381 brachiopod genera in 44 different operational geographical units (stations) was analyzed by both Q-mode and R-mode quantitative methods. Four distinct brachiopod biogeographical realms and nine provinces, and 11 brachiopod associations are recognized. The Boreal Realm in the Northern Hemisphere includes the Verkolyman Province in the northern and northeastern Siberian Platform and the eastern European Province in the Ural seaway between the European and Siberian platforms. Both provinces are characterized by containing typical Boreal cold-water brachiopod associations. The Gondwanan Realm in the south also includes two provinces. The Austrazean Province in eastern Australia and New Zealand is probably the most stable province throughout the Permian and characterized by typical Gondwanan brachiopod associations. The Westralian Province centered in Western Australia is also characterized by typical Gondwanan brachiopods, but also demonstrates biogeographical links with the Tethyan stations. The Palaeoequatorial Realm located mainly in the palaeotropical zone contains highly diverse and abundant brachiopod faunas. Two regions/subrealms and four provinces are recognized within this realm. The North America Subrealm contains a distinct Grandian Province characterized by many endemic brachiopod genera and a few coldwater genera. East-central Alaska and Yukon Territory may constitute another brachiopod province. All the stations in the Tethyan Ocean (both Palaeotethys and Neotethys) constitute a distinct Asian–Tethyan Region/ Subrealm and incorporate three different provinces. The Cathaysian Province is comprised of the stations in South China and its surrounding terranes/blocks and a few stations in the northern and western margin of the Palaeotethys. Two transitional provinces (Sino–Mongolian–Japanese Province and Cimmerian Province) in the northern and southern temperate zones are also recognizable. The brachiopod fauna from the Mino Belt in Japan is well distinguished from those from other regions, and is hence assigned to the palaeoceanic Panthalassan Realm. Principal coordinates analysis and minimum spanning tree analysis suggest that a latitude-related thermal gradient was the major control for the palaeobiogeography of Roadian–Wordian global brachiopod faunas and for the latitudinal of pattern of decreasing brachiopod generic diversities from the equator to the poles. In addition, geographic separation and oceanic currents may also have played some role in the spatial distribution of brachiopods during Roadian–Wordian times.

Yagonia Roberts (brachiopoda : chonetidina) from the malimán formation, lower carboniferous of western Argentina : palaeobiogeographical implications

A new anoplid chonetid species, Yagonia furquei sp. nov., is described from the Lower Carboniferous (late Tournaisian–early Viséan) Malimán Formation of western Argentina. The associated temperate ‘Malimanian’ fauna is suggested to indicate an initial biotic segregation that took place in western Gondwana (southwestern South America), a palaeobiogeographic event that predated the late Viséan global cooling and associated major palaeolatitudinal biotic differentiation. Occurrences of Yagonia are here interpreted as evidence of a ‘south to north’ faunal migration pathway, here named the Austropanthalassic–Rheic oceanic corridor, established in western Gondwana during the late Early Carboniferous.

Dislodgment and attachment strength of the intertidal macroalga Hormosira banksii (Fucales, Phaeophyceae)

Hormosira banksii is a dominant intertidal alga characterised by limited dispersal of propagules, yet it has a broad distribution throughout temperate Australasia. However, the high abundance of beach wrack of H. banksii on sandy beaches along southwest Victoria, the frequency of frond dislodgment and the force required to break it from the substratum remain unknown. Dislodgment of macroalgae has been shown to influence dispersal processes; therefore, we tested the model that long-distance dispersal of H. banksii is facilitated by weak attachment to the substratum and frequent dislodgment of fertile fronds. We monitored the dislodgment of H. banksii individuals and conducted in situ pull tests to determine the attachment strength of fronds of H. banksii. We further tested whether thallus size or pull direction influenced attachment strength of H. banksii. We found that breakage of vesicles and fronds was a regular event during the survey period and that the mean attachment strength of fronds of H. banksii was weak compared to other intertidal algae. Furthermore, we found that thallus size did not influence the force required to break fronds of H.banksii from the substratum but that the direction that fronds were pulled from the substratum did. We suggest that fronds of H. banksii do drift frequently and that long-distance dispersal is likely to be an important mechanism for the distributional success of this species.

Master of Montsalvat

A study of the creation by the charismatic artist and architect, Justus Jorgensen, of an artists' colony at Montsalvat, Eltham, in the early 1930s. A comprehensive examination of this enterprise had not previously been attempted. The research unexpectedly revealed the community's close but clandestine association with psychoanalysis, which had intruded into every aspect of the artists' lives.

Bathymetry and frontal system interactions influence seasonal foraging movements of lactating subantarctic fur seals from Marion Island

Sixteen lactating subantarctic fur seals Arctocephalus tropicalis were satellite-tracked during the winter of 2006 (n = 6), summer of 2006/07 (n = 6) and autumn/winter (n = 4) of 2007, from Marion Island, Southern Ocean. Despite varied individual movement patterns, a favoured foraging area lay to the northeast of the island. In contrast to findings for populations at similar latitudes, seals from Marion Island did not undertake short overnight foraging trips, but trips consistently went beyond 300 km from the island. This aligns with the at-sea duration of lactating seals’ foraging trips from temperate Amsterdam Island, but differs from subantarctic Crozet and Macquarie islands. Time spent at sea, maximum distances travelled and movement variation of tracks from the island varied seasonally. Faecal analysis suggests the diet comprised primarily myctophid fish with limited seasonal variation. Well-defined areas of restricted movement coincided with significant bathymetric features to the west/northwest of the Crozet Plateau, with the Del Caño Rise clearly being important. Positive and negative sea-surface height anomalies (compared to the mean) appeared to be preferred by most seals across seasons. Higher summer sea-surface temperatures correlated with the movements of some seals. Higher chlorophyll a concentrations dictated transit and foraging areas during summer. Bathymetrically influenced oceanographic variables likely explain these preferred long-distance eastward movements. The Îles Crozet and Marion island subantarctic fur seals differ in their foraging ecology despite being neighbours. Conversely, the subantarctic fur seal populations from the distant Amsterdam and Marion islands appear to be similarly influenced by such environmental factors.

Birth of a biome : insights into the assembly and maintenance of the Australian arid zone biota

The integration of phylogenetics, phylogeography and palaeoenvironmental studies is providing major insights into the historical forces that have shaped the Earth’s biomes. Yet our present view is biased towards arctic and temperate/tropical forest regions, with very little focus on the extensive arid regions of the planet. The Australian arid zone is one of the largest desert landform systems in the world, with a unique, diverse and relatively well-studied biota. With foci on palaeoenvironmental and molecular data, we here review what is known about the assembly and maintenance of this biome in the context of its physical history, and in comparison with other mesic biomes. Aridification of Australia began in the Mid-Miocene, around 15 million years, but fully arid landforms in central Australia appeared much later, around 1–4 million years. Dated molecular phylogenies of diverse taxa show the deepest divergences of arid-adapted taxa from the Mid-Miocene, consistent with the onset of desiccation. There is evidence of arid-adapted taxa evolving from mesicadapted ancestors, and also of speciation within the arid zone. There is no evidence for an increase in speciation rate during the Pleistocene, and most arid-zone species lineages date to the Pliocene or earlier. The last 0.8 million years have seen major fluctuations of the arid zone, with large areas covered by mobile sand dunes during glacial maxima. Some large, vagile taxa show patterns of recent expansion and migration throughout the arid zone, in parallel with the ice sheet-imposed range shifts in Northern Hemisphere taxa. Yet other taxa show high lineage diversity and strong phylogeographical structure, indicating persistence in multiple localised refugia over several glacial maxima. Similar to the Northern Hemisphere, Pleistocene range shifts have produced suture zones, creating the opportunity for diversification and speciation through hybridisation, polyploidy and parthenogenesis. This review highlights the opportunities that development of arid conditions provides for rapid and diverse evolutionary radiations, and re-enforces the emerging view that Pleistocene environmental change can have diverse impacts on genetic structure and diversity in different biomes. There is a clear need for more detailed and targeted phylogeographical studies of Australia’s arid biota and we suggest a framework and a set of a priori hypotheses by which to proceed.

Last interglacial climates of south-eastern Australia : plant and beetle-based reconstructions from Yarra Creek, King Island, Tasmania

This paper explores the palaeoclimatic significance of a fossil plant and insect record from Yarra Creek, on King Island, between Tasmania and the Australian mainland. The record dates, based upon a thermoluminescence chronology and other evidence, to Marine Isotope Stage 5 (MIS 5); the exact timing is impossible to ascertain given the resolution of the thermoluminescence results and the presence of an unconformity in the dated section. The presence of a cool-temperate rainforest flora, outside its modern range, and other independent evidence, suggest the sequence may represent the last interglacial (MIS 5e) rather than a later MIS 5 substage. Using coexistence methods that compare modern climatic ranges of the taxa in the assemblage we reconstruct independent beetle and plant based annual and seasonal temperate and precipitation parameters. The results imply the assemblage was deposited under a wetter summer climate and suggest conditions of enhanced temperature seasonality. It is probable that enhanced temperature seasonality is a methodological artefact reflecting the rarity of extremely equable climates (like King Island) in modern climate space. This would indicate a limitation of most methods of palaeoclimatic reconstruction that rely on modern datasets – it is only possible to reconstruct past climates as being within the range of values in that currently exist in modern climate space.

Accuracy of ARGOS locations of pinnipeds at-sea estimated using Fastloc GPS

Background: ARGOS satellite telemetry is one of the most widely used methods to track the movements of free-ranging marine and terrestrial animals and is fundamental to studies of foraging ecology, migratory behavior and habitat-use. ARGOS location estimates do not include complete error estimations, and for many marine organisms, the most commonly acquired locations (Location Class 0, A, B, or Z) are provided with no declared error estimate.
Methodology/Principal Findings: We compared the accuracy of ARGOS locations to those obtained using Fastloc GPS from the same electronic tags on five species of pinnipeds: 9 California sea lions (Zalophus californianus), 4 Galapagos sea lions (Zalophus wollebaeki), 6 Cape fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus), 3 Australian fur seals (A. p. doriferus) and 5 northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris). These species encompass a range of marine habitats (highly pelagic vs coastal), diving behaviors (mean dive durations 2–21 min) and range of latitudes (equator to temperate). A total of 7,318 ARGOS positions and 27,046 GPS positions were collected. Of these, 1,105 ARGOS positions were obtained within five minutes of a GPS position and were used for comparison. The 68^th percentile ARGOS location errors as measured in this study were LC-3
0.49 km, LC-2 1.01 km, LC-1 1.20 km, LC-0 4.18 km, LC-A 6.19 km, LC-B 10.28 km.
Conclusions/Significance: The ARGOS errors measured here are greater than those provided by ARGOS, but within the range of other studies. The error was non-normally distributed with each LC highly right-skewed. Locations of species that make short duration dives and spend extended periods on the surface (sea lions and fur seals) had less error than species like elephant seals that spend more time underwater and have shorter surface intervals. Supplemental data (S1) are provided allowing the creation of density distributions that can be used in a variety of filtering algorithms to improve the quality of ARGOS tracking data.