Francisco Pizarro' s banner of arms: an analytical work contributing to latin America's history

The study of textiles is an open area of scientific research, which for its variety of material components and physical chemical diversity of conditions, makes a field of interest for scientific studies in the cultural heritage field. Archaeological/historical textiles offer the possibility to carry out studies on organic materials such as fibers, adhesion elements, dyes, paper, etc., as well as on inorganic compounds for instance metals, alloys, precious stones and other added ornamentation. That variety of composition, allow to use a combination of analytical techniques to solve the questions coming from the object in an archaeometric research. One kind of textile object that provides a valuable cultural information because of its linguistic representation employed by its carrier societies, are the flags/banners/emblems, objects made with a nonverbal communication purpose. As long as depending on the use and/or purpose of each object, varies both the materials/techniques used in its production and its iconography (style, color, emblem, shape), its study gives the possibility to extract information through their materials and manufacturing techniques about a temporal-spatial frame, a particular event or a specific character. The flags/banners have been used since the eleventh century as representative objects of power, hierarchy, social or military organization, or as communicative media. The use of these objects has been spread throughout the world, possibly due to its easy interpretation and/or appropriation by different societies, making it part of their own culture. The flags as symbols of territorial control, using emblems that represent a family, order or army, were introduced to the New World (America) with the arrival of the European conquerors at the end of the fifteenth century. Flags/banners representing the Royal dominion over conquered territories, the Catholic Church and conquistadors��� armies were the first to arrive. One of those flags that have endured over time, that have an invaluable cultural meaning for both American and Iberian societies, is the so-called Francisco Pizarro���s Banner of Arms. It is a textile object with metal threads decoration over a Royal emblem. According to historical sources, this object was used by Francisco Pizarro in 1532 on the conquest process of Peru, after received the permission by King Charles V to on behalf of him, to conquer the lands of the New World today known as Peru. After Pizarro���s control of the Inca territory, it is believed that Pizarro left his banner on top of the Inca���s Sun���s Temple as symbol of his rule. Centuries later, in the America libertarian campaigns, General Sucre, military at charge of the independence army in Peru, reports have found what he considered the Pizarro���s Banner, sending it to Bogot�� as a symbol of victory, being kept since that time until today by the National Museum of Colombia. Due to historical discrepancies in the different movements of the so-called Pizarro���s Banner of Arms, its real meaning has been under discussion and because of the passage of time its physical condition has suffer deterioration. That is because its scientific study is now an interesting case study to respond to both historical and conservation questions of it. Through a collaboration with the National Museum of Colombia, a set of 25 samples of so-called Pizarro���s Banner of Arms were collected, covering the various components and areas from the object of study. These samples were subjected to analytical studies for physical and chemical characterization. Microscopic observation, VSEM-EDS analysis, Raman spectroscopy, chromatographic analysis (HPLC-MS, GCMS) and radiocarbon dating were done. Similarly, was sought through a direct in situ physical inspection to the object and through a research into historical sources, adequate information to solve the object���s problems. Results obtained allowed to identify as silk the textile used in the elaboration of the Banner���s fabric, as well as the use of natural dyes for dyeing the fibers used on the emblem: use of cochineal and brazil wood as a source of red, luteolin plant-based for yellow color, indigotine plant-based for blue, and a mixture of yellow and blue dyes for green were identified. Similarly, the use of animal glue in the manufacturing process and the use of rag paper was evident. The metal threads study from the Banner give a confirmation to a silver core wire gilded with a thin gold sheet, being flattened and entwined with silk threads for their use. Finally, using the radiocarbon results, it was possible to postulate with huge accuracy that the Banner date manufacture was between the XV-XVI century and subject to restoration processes with addition of textiles in modern times. Together with, was evident that the state of degradation of the fabric is due to natural degradation in the silk fibers, having that its color has faded and its mechanical properties decreased, leading to loss of rigidity and disappearance of the physical structure. Similarly, it was clear the original colors of the emblem and highlight problems of detachment of paper due to crystallization of the adhesive. In the same way, was found that the metal threads suffer corrosion by sulfur and detachment of its crystals. Finally, combining the analytical results and the historical sources data found from the so-called Francisco Pizarro���s Banner of Arms, allows to postulate that its manufacture process was done in Europe employing precious materials to obtain a long-life object with a deep message for its viewers. Also, the data obtained helps to support the possible idea that the object was employed by Francisco Pizarro in the Peru conquest process. However, by the symbols present in the object, its elaboration date and materials, this object its clearly unique in its kind, and the most important, by its linguistic message, does not represent to Francisco Pizarro or his army, meanwhile, represents the Spanish crown. Therefore, instead to be labeled as Francisco Pizarro���s Banner of Arms, it should be called the Colonial Royal Banner of Charles V in the New World; RESUMEN: El estudio de textiles es un ��rea abierta de investigaci��n cient��fica, la cual por su variedad de componentes materiales y la diversidad de condiciones f��sico-qu��micas presentes en estos objetos, lo hace un campo de inter��s para estudios cient��ficos en el patrimonio cultural. Los textiles arqueol��gicos/hist��ricos brindan la posibilidad de realizar estudios en materiales org��nicos como fibras, elementos de adhesi��n, tinturas, papel, etc., e inorg��nicos como metales, aleaciones, piedras preciosas y dem��s materiales decorativos a��adidos. Por su variedad de composici��n, es posible emplear diversas t��cnicas anal��ticas para resolver aquellas preguntas propias del objeto en una investigaci��n arqueom��trica. Uno de los objetos textiles que brinda gran informaci��n cultural debido a su representaci��n ling����stica empleada por las sociedades portadoras, son las banderas/estandartes/emblemas. Donde var��a dependiendo de su uso y/o prop��sito, los materiales empleados en su elaboraci��n, al igual que su iconograf��a (estilo, color, emblema, forma). El estudio de estos objetos construidos con un prop��sito de comunicaci��n no verbal, da la posibilidad de extraer informaci��n a trav��s de sus materiales y t��cnicas de elaboraci��n sobre un rango temporal-espacial, un evento determinado en la historia o incluso a un personaje en espec��fico. Las banderas han sido empleadas desde el siglo XI como objetos representativos de poder, jerarqu��a, organizaci��n social o militar, o como medio de comunicaci��n. El uso de estos objetos se ha extendido a lo largo del mundo posiblemente debido a su f��cil interpretaci��n y/o apropiaci��n por distintas sociedades, haci��ndolo parte de su cultura. Las banderas como s��mbolos de control territorial, empleando s��mbolos que representan a una familia, orden o armada fueron introducidas a el Nuevo Mundo (Am��rica) con la llegada de los conquistadores europeos al final del siglo XV. Las banderas/estandartes que representaban el dominio Real sobre territorios dominados, la iglesia cat��lica y las banderas de ej��rcitos y/o conquistadores fueron las primeras en llegar al nuevo mundo. Una de aquellas banderas que ha soportado el paso del tiempo, teniendo un gran valor cultural tanto para las sociedades americanas como para las ib��ricas, es el denominado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro. Siendo un objeto textil con decoraci��n en hilos met��licos sobre un emblema Real. De acuerdo a fuentes hist��ricas, este objeto fue usado por Francisco Pizarro en 1532 en el proceso de conquista del Per��, quien recibe por parte del Rey Carlos V el poder para que, en su nombre, Pizarro pueda conquistar las tierras del nuevo mundo hoy conocidas como Per��. Luego del dominio de Pizarro sobre el territorio Inca, se cree que Pizarro dej�� su estandarte en la cima del templo Inca del sol como s��mbolo de su control. Siglos m��s tarde, en las campa��as libertarias de Am��rica, el General Sucre, militar encargado de la armada independentista en Per��, reporta haber encontrado lo que ��l considera como el estandarte de Pizarro, envi��ndolo a Bogot�� como muestra de victoria, siendo custodiada desde ese momento por el Museo Nacional de Colombia hasta la actualidad. Debido a discrepancias hist��ricas, el verdadero significado del llamado estandarte de Pizarro ha sido objeto de discusi��n y debido del pasar del tiempo su estado de conservaci��n se ha deteriorado. Dejando de este modo, un caso de estudio interesante para que por medio de estudios cient��ficos al objeto se pueda dar respuesta a preguntas tanto hist��ricas como de conservaci��n del mismo. De este modo, por medio de una colaboraci��n con el Museo Nacional de Colombia, se obtuvo un juego de 25 muestras del llamado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, abarcando los diferentes componentes y ��reas del objeto de estudio. Dichas muestras fueron sometidas a estudios anal��ticos para su caracterizaci��n f��sico-qu��mica. An��lisis de observaci��n al microscopio, an��lisis VSEM-EDS, espectroscopia Raman, an��lisis cromatogr��ficos (HPLC-MS, GC-MS) y dataci��n por radiocarbono catorce fueron realizados. Del mismo modo, por medio de una inspecci��n f��sica al objeto in situ y una profunda investigaci��n en fuentes hist��ricas del mismo, se busc�� la informaci��n adecuada para resolver sus problem��ticas. Los resultados obtenidos permitieron identificar como seda el textil empleado en la elaboraci��n del estandarte, as�� como el uso de colorantes naturales para te��ir las fibras en el emblema: uso de cochinilla y palo de Brasil como fuente del color rojo, plantas a base de luteolin para el color amarillo, plantas a base de indigotina para el color azul y mezcla de colorantes amarillos y azules para el color verde fueron identificadas. Del mismo modo se evidencio el uso de adhesivos animales y el uso de papel de trapos en el proceso de manufactura. El estudio de los hilos met��licos, permiti�� evidenciar el uso de alambres con n��cleos de plata con un fino recubrimiento de oro en su exterior, siendo aplanados y entrelazados con hilos de seda para su uso. Finalmente usando la dataci��n por radiocarbono, fue posible conocer con alta precisi��n que el estandarte fue elaborado entre los siglos XV-XVI y sufri�� procesos de restauraci��n con a��adidura de textiles en tiempos modernos. Junto a lo anterior, es posible postular que el estado de degradaci��n de la tela es debido a degradaci��n natural en las fibras de seda, teniendo as�� que su color se ha desvanecido y sus propiedades mec��nicas disminuidas, conllevando a perdida de rigidez y desaparici��n de la estructura. Del mismo modo se pudo conocer los colores originales del emblema y evidenciar problemas de desprendimiento del papel debido a cristalizaci��n del adhesivo. Asimismo, se comprob�� que los hilos met��licos presentan corrosi��n por azufre y desprendimiento de sus cristales. Finalmente, combinando los resultados anal��ticos y la informaci��n de fuentes hist��ricas encontradas del llamado Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, se puede postular que su elaboraci��n fue realizada en Europa, usando materiales preciosos para obtener un objeto de larga vida con un profundo mensaje para sus observadores. Tambi��n, los datos obtenidos ayudan a dar soporte la posible idea de que este objeto fue usado por Francisco Pizarro en el proceso de conquista del Per��. Sin embargo, debido a los s��mbolos presentes en el objeto, fecha y materiales de elaboraci��n, este objeto es claramente ��nico en su tipo, y lo m��s importante, por su mensaje ling����stico, este no representa a Francisco Pizarro o su armada, al contrario, representa a la Corona de Espa��a. Por ende, en vez de denominarse como Estandarte de armas de Francisco Pizarro, este objeto deber��a nombrarse como el Estandarte Real de la Colonia de Carlos V en el Nuevo Mundo.

Fear, trust and Aborigines : The historical experience of state institutions and current encounters in the health system

Troubled dynamics between residents of an Aboriginal town in Queensland and the local health system were established during colonisation and consolidated during those periods of Australian history where the policies of 'protection' (segregation), integration and then assimilation held sway. The status of Aboriginal health is, in part, related to interactions between the residents' current and historical experiences of the health and criminal justice systems as together these agencies used medical and moral policing to legitimate dispossession, marginalisation, institutionalisation and control of the residents. The punitive regulations and ethnocentric strategies used by these institutions are within the living memory of many of the residents or in the published accounts of preceding generations. This paper explores current residents' memories and experiences.

The new world of work and employment: fitness workers and what they want from the employment relationship

This paper reports on an empirically based study of the Queensland (Australia) health and fitness industry over 15 years (1993 -2008). This study traces the development of the new occupation of fitness instructor in a service industry which has evolved si nce the 1980s and is embedded in values of consumption and individualism. It is the new world of work. The data from the 1993 study was historically significant, capturing the conditions o f employment in an unregulated setting prior to the introduction of the first industrial a ward in that industry in 1994. Fitness workers bargained directly with employers over all a spects of the employment relationship without the constraints of industrial regulation or the presence of trade unions. The substantive outcomes of the employment relationship were a direct reflection of m anagerial prerogative and worker orientation and preference, and did not reflect the rewards and outcomes traditionally found in Australian workplaces. While the focus of the 1993 research was on exploring the employment relationship in a deregulated environment, an unusual phenomenon was identified: fitness workers happily trading-off what would be considere d standard working conditions for the opportunity to work (���take the stage���). Since then, several streams of literature have evolved providing a new context for understanding this phenomenon in the fitness industry, including: the sociology of the body (Shilling 1993; Turner 1996); emotional (Hochschild 1984) and aesthetic labour (Warhurst et al 2000); the so cial relations of production and space (Lefebvre 1991; Moss 1995); body history (Helps 2007); the sociology of consumption (Saunders 1988; Baudrillard 1998; Ritzer 2004); and work identity (Du Gay 1996; Strangleman 2004). The 2008 survey instrument replicated the 1993 study but was additionally informed b y the new literature. Surveys were sent to 310 commercial fitness centres and 4,800 fitness workers across Queensland. Worker orientation appears unchanged, and industry working conditions still seem atypical despite regulation si nce 1994. We argue that for many fitness workers the goal is to gain access to the fitness centre economy. For this they are willing to trade-off standard conditions of employment, and exchange traditional employm ent rewards for m ore intrinsic psycho-social rewards gained the through e xp o sure of their physical capital (Bourdieu 1984) o r bo dily prowess to the adoration o f their gazing clients. Building on the tradition of emotional labour and aesthetic labour, this study introduces the concept of ocularcentric labour: a state in which labour���s quest for the psychosocial rewards gained from their own body image shapes the employment relationship. With ocularcentric labour the p sycho-social rewards have greater value for the worker than ���hard���, core conditions of employment, and are a significant factor in bargaining and outcomes, often substituting fo r direct earnings. The wo rkforce profile (young, female, casual) and their expectations (psycho-social rewards of ado ration and celebrity) challenge traditional trade unions in terms of what they can deliver, given the fitness workers��� willingness to trade-off minimum conditions, hard-won by unions.

Generalising unitary time evolution

In this third Quantum Interaction (QI) meeting it is time to examine our failures. One of the weakest elements of QI as a field, arises in its continuing lack of models displaying proper evolutionary dynamics. This paper presents an overview of the modern generalised approach to the derivation of time evolution equations in physics, showing how the notion of symmetry is essential to the extraction of operators in quantum theory. The form that symmetry might take in non-physical models is explored, with a number of viable avenues identified.

Transfer of learning across the globe : pre-service teachers taking the initiative

A continuing challenge for pre-service teacher education is the learning transfer between the university based components and the practical school based components of their training. It is not clear how easily pre-service teachers can transfer university learnings into ���in school��� practice. Similarly, it is not clear how easily knowledge learned in the school context can be disembedded from this particular context and understood more generally by the pre-service teacher. This paper examines the effect of a community of practice formed specifically to explore learning transfer via collaboration and professional enquiry, in ���real time���, across the globe. ���Activity Theory��� (Engestrom, 1999) provided the theoretical framework through which the cognitive, physical and social processes involved could be understood. For the study, three activity systems formed community of practice network. The first activity system involved pre-service teachers at a large university in Queensland, Australia. The second activity system was introduced by the pre-service teachers and involved Year 12 students and teachers at a private secondary school also in Queensland, Australia. The third activity system involved university staff engineers at a large university in Pennsylvania, USA. The common object among the three activity systems was to explore the principles and applications of nanotechnology. The participants in the two Queensland activity systems, controlled laboratory equipment (a high powered Atomic Force Microscope ��� CPII) in Pennsylvania, USA, with the aim of investigating surface topography and the properties of nano particles. The pre-service teachers were to develop their remote ���real time��� experience into school classroom tasks, implement these tasks, and later report their findings to other pre-service teachers in the university activity system. As an extension to the project, the pre-service teachers were invited to co-author papers relating to the project. Data were collected from (a) reflective journals; (b) participant field notes ��� a pre-service teacher initiative; (c) surveys ��� a pre-service teacher initiative; (d) lesson reflections and digital recordings ��� a pre-service teacher initiative; and (e) interviews with participants. The findings are reported in terms of the major themes: boundary crossing, the philosophy of teaching, and professional relationships The findings have implications for teacher education. The researchers feel that deliberate planning for networking between activity systems may well be a solution to the apparent theory/practice gap. Proximity of activity systems need not be a hindering issue.

Poverty in perception : a study of the twentieth-century prime ministers of Australia and New Zealand

Australia and New Zealand, as English-speaking nations with dominant white populations, present an ethnic anomaly not only in South East Asia, but also in the Southern Hemisphere. Colonised by predominantly workingclass British immigrants from the late eighteenth century, an ethnic and cultural connection grew between these two countries even though their indigenous populations and ecological environments were otherwise very different. Building a new life in Australia and New Zealand, the colonists shared similar historic perceptions of poverty ��� perceptions from their homelands that they did not want to see replicated in their new adopted countries. Dreams of a better life shaped their aspirations, self-identity and nationalistic outlook. By the twentieth century, national independence and self-government had replaced British colonial rule. The inveterate occurrence of poverty in Australia and New Zealand had created new local perspectives and different perceptions of, and about, poverty. This study analyses what relationship existed between the political directions adopted by the twentieth-century prime ministers of Australia and New Zealand and their perceptions of poverty. Using the existential phenomenological theory and methodology of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, the study adds to the body of knowledge about poverty in Australia and New Zealand by revealing the structure and origin of the poverty perceptions of the twentieth-century prime ministers.

A new multilevel converter configuration for high power and high quality applications

The Queensland University of Technology (QUT) allows the presentation of theses for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the format of published or submitted papers, where such papers have been published, accepted or submitted during the period of candidature. This thesis is composed of ten published /submitted papers and book chapters of which nine have been published and one is under review. This project is financially supported by an Australian Research Council (ARC) Discovery Grant with the aim of investigating multilevel topologies for high quality and high power applications, with specific emphasis on renewable energy systems. The rapid evolution of renewable energy within the last several years has resulted in the design of efficient power converters suitable for medium and high-power applications such as wind turbine and photovoltaic (PV) systems. Today, the industrial trend is moving away from heavy and bulky passive components to power converter systems that use more and more semiconductor elements controlled by powerful processor systems. However, it is hard to connect the traditional converters to the high and medium voltage grids, as a single power switch cannot stand at high voltage. For these reasons, a new family of multilevel inverters has appeared as a solution for working with higher voltage levels. Besides this important feature, multilevel converters have the capability to generate stepped waveforms. Consequently, in comparison with conventional two-level inverters, they present lower switching losses, lower voltage stress across loads, lower electromagnetic interference (EMI) and higher quality output waveforms. These properties enable the connection of renewable energy sources directly to the grid without using expensive, bulky, heavy line transformers. Additionally, they minimize the size of the passive filter and increase the durability of electrical devices. However, multilevel converters have only been utilised in very particular applications, mainly due to the structural limitations, high cost and complexity of the multilevel converter system and control. New developments in the fields of power semiconductor switches and processors will favor the multilevel converters for many other fields of application. The main application for the multilevel converter presented in this work is the front-end power converter in renewable energy systems. Diode-clamped and cascade converters are the most common type of multilevel converters widely used in different renewable energy system applications. However, some drawbacks ��� such as capacitor voltage imbalance, number of components, and complexity of the control system ��� still exist, and these are investigated in the framework of this thesis. Various simulations using software simulation tools are undertaken and are used to study different cases. The feasibility of the developments is underlined with a series of experimental results. This thesis is divided into two main sections. The first section focuses on solving the capacitor voltage imbalance for a wide range of applications, and on decreasing the complexity of the control strategy on the inverter side. The idea of using sharing switches at the output structure of the DC-DC front-end converters is proposed to balance the series DC link capacitors. A new family of multioutput DC-DC converters is proposed for renewable energy systems connected to the DC link voltage of diode-clamped converters. The main objective of this type of converter is the sharing of the total output voltage into several series voltage levels using sharing switches. This solves the problems associated with capacitor voltage imbalance in diode-clamped multilevel converters. These converters adjust the variable and unregulated DC voltage generated by renewable energy systems (such as PV) to the desirable series multiple voltage levels at the inverter DC side. A multi-output boost (MOB) converter, with one inductor and series output voltage, is presented. This converter is suitable for renewable energy systems based on diode-clamped converters because it boosts the low output voltage and provides the series capacitor at the output side. A simple control strategy using cross voltage control with internal current loop is presented to obtain the desired voltage levels at the output voltage. The proposed topology and control strategy are validated by simulation and hardware results. Using the idea of voltage sharing switches, the circuit structure of different topologies of multi-output DC-DC converters ��� or multi-output voltage sharing (MOVS) converters ��� have been proposed. In order to verify the feasibility of this topology and its application, steady state and dynamic analyses have been carried out. Simulation and experiments using the proposed control strategy have verified the mathematical analysis. The second part of this thesis addresses the second problem of multilevel converters: the need to improve their quality with minimum cost and complexity. This is related to utilising asymmetrical multilevel topologies instead of conventional multilevel converters; this can increase the quality of output waveforms with a minimum number of components. It also allows for a reduction in the cost and complexity of systems while maintaining the same output quality, or for an increase in the quality while maintaining the same cost and complexity. Therefore, the asymmetrical configuration for two common types of multilevel converters ��� diode-clamped and cascade converters ��� is investigated. Also, as well as addressing the maximisation of the output voltage resolution, some technical issues ��� such as adjacent switching vectors ��� should be taken into account in asymmetrical multilevel configurations to keep the total harmonic distortion (THD) and switching losses to a minimum. Thus, the asymmetrical diode-clamped converter is proposed. An appropriate asymmetrical DC link arrangement is presented for four-level diode-clamped converters by keeping adjacent switching vectors. In this way, five-level inverter performance is achieved for the same level of complexity of the four-level inverter. Dealing with the capacitor voltage imbalance problem in asymmetrical diodeclamped converters has inspired the proposal for two different DC-DC topologies with a suitable control strategy. A Triple-Output Boost (TOB) converter and a Boost 3-Output Voltage Sharing (Boost-3OVS) converter connected to the four-level diode-clamped converter are proposed to arrange the proposed asymmetrical DC link for the high modulation indices and unity power factor. Cascade converters have shown their abilities and strengths in medium and high power applications. Using asymmetrical H-bridge inverters, more voltage levels can be generated in output voltage with the same number of components as the symmetrical converters. The concept of cascading multilevel H-bridge cells is used to propose a fifteen-level cascade inverter using a four-level H-bridge symmetrical diode-clamped converter, cascaded with classical two-level Hbridge inverters. A DC voltage ratio of cells is presented to obtain maximum voltage levels on output voltage, with adjacent switching vectors between all possible voltage levels; this can minimize the switching losses. This structure can save five isolated DC sources and twelve switches in comparison to conventional cascade converters with series two-level H bridge inverters. To increase the quality in presented hybrid topology with minimum number of components, a new cascade inverter is verified by cascading an asymmetrical four-level H-bridge diode-clamped inverter. An inverter with nineteen-level performance was achieved. This synthesizes more voltage levels with lower voltage and current THD, rather than using a symmetrical diode-clamped inverter with the same configuration and equivalent number of power components. Two different predictive current control methods for the switching states selection are proposed to minimise either losses or THD of voltage in hybrid converters. High voltage spikes at switching time in experimental results and investigation of a diode-clamped inverter structure raised another problem associated with high-level high voltage multilevel converters. Power switching components with fast switching, combined with hard switched-converters, produce high di/dt during turn off time. Thus, stray inductance of interconnections becomes an important issue and raises overvoltage and EMI issues correlated to the number of components. Planar busbar is a good candidate to reduce interconnection inductance in high power inverters compared with cables. The effect of different transient current loops on busbar physical structure of the high-voltage highlevel diode-clamped converters is highlighted. Design considerations of proper planar busbar are also presented to optimise the overall design of diode-clamped converters.

Workplace design in the knowledge economy : a case of the NetWorkPlace�����

This thesis explores a way to inform the architectural design process for contemporary workplace environments. It reports on both theoretical and practical outcomes through an exclusively Australian case study of a network enterprise comprised of collaborative, yet independent business entities. The internet revolution, substantial economic and cultural shifts, and an increased emphasis on lifestyle considerations have prompted a radical re-ordering of organisational relationships and the associated structures, processes, and places of doing business. The social milieu of the information age and the knowledge economy is characterised by an almost instantaneous flow of information and capital. This has culminated in a phenomenon termed by Manuel Castells as the network society, where physical locations are joined together by continuous communication and virtual connectivity. A new spatial logic encompassing redefined concepts of space and distance, and requiring a comprehensive shift in the approach to designing workplace environments for today���s adaptive, collaborative organisations in a dynamic business world, provides the backdrop for this research. Within the duality of space and an augmentation of the traditional notions of place, organisational and institutional structures pose new challenges for the design professions. The literature revealed that there has always been a mono-organisational focus in relation to workplace design strategies. The phenomenon of inter-organisational collaboration has enabled the identification of a gap in the knowledge relative to workplace design. This new context generated the formulation of a unique research construct, the NetWorkPlace�����, which captures the complexity of contemporary employment structures embracing both physical and virtual work environments and practices, and provided the basis for investigating the factors that are shaping and defining interactions within and across networked organisational settings. The methodological orientation and the methods employed follow a qualitative approach and an abductively driven strategy comprising two distinct components, a cross-sectional study of the whole of the network and a longitudinal study, focusing on a single discrete workplace site. The complexity of the context encountered dictated that a multi-dimensional investigative framework was required to be devised. The adoption of a pluralist ontology and the reconfiguration of approaches from traditional paradigms into a collaborative, trans-disciplinary, multi-method epistemology provided an explicit and replicatable method of investigation. The identification and introduction of the NetWorkPlace����� phenomenon, by necessity, spans a number of traditional disciplinary boundaries. Results confirm that in this context, architectural research, and by extension architectural practice, must engage with what other disciplines have to offer. The research concludes that no single disciplinary approach to either research or practice in this area of design can suffice. Pierre Bourdieau���s philosophy of ���practice��� provides a framework within which the governance and technology structures, together with the mechanisms enabling the production of social order in this context, can be understood. This is achieved by applying the concepts of position and positioning to the corporate power dynamics, and integrating the conflict found to exist between enterprise standard and ferally conceived technology systems. By extending existing theory and conceptions of ���place��� and the ���person-environment relationship���, relevant understandings of the tensions created between Castells��� notions of the space of place and the space of flows are established. The trans-disciplinary approach adopted, and underpinned by a robust academic and practical framework, illustrates the potential for expanding the range and richness of understanding applicable to design in this context. The outcome informs workplace design by extending theoretical horizons, and by the development of a comprehensive investigative process comprising a suite of models and techniques for both architectural and interior design research and practice, collectively entitled the NetWorkPlace����� Application Framework. This work contributes to the body of knowledge within the design disciplines in substantive, theoretical, and methodological terms, whilst potentially also influencing future organisational network theories, management practices, and information and communication technology applications. The NetWorkPlace����� as reported in this thesis, constitutes a multi-dimensional concept having the capacity to deal with the fluidity and ambiguity characteristic of the network context, as both a topic of research and the way of going about it.

Fiji pre-service primary teachers' understanding of physical science : a cultural perspective

Science and technology are promoted as major contributors to national development. Consequently, improved science education has been placed high on the agenda of tasks to be tackled in many developing countries, although progress has often been limited. In fact there have been claims that the enormous investment in teaching science in developing countries has basically failed, with many reports of how efforts to teach science in developing countries often result in rote learning of strange concepts, mere copying of factual information, and a general lack of understanding on the part of local students. These generalisations can be applied to science education in Fiji. Muralidhar (1989) has described a situation in which upper primary and middle school students in Fiji were given little opportunity to engage in practical work; an extremely didactic form of teacher exposition was the predominant method of instruction during science lessons. He concluded that amongst other things, teachers' limited understanding, particularly of aspects of physical science, resulted in their rigid adherence to the text book or the omission of certain activities or topics. Although many of the problems associated with science education in developing countries have been documented, few attempts have been made to understand how non-Western students might better learn science. This study addresses the issue of Fiji pre-service primary teachers' understanding of a key aspect of physical science, namely, matter and how it changes, and their responses to learning experiences based on a constructivist epistemology. Initial interviews were used to probe pre-service primary teachers' understanding of this domain of science. The data were analysed to identify students' alternative and scientific conceptions. These conceptions were then used to construct Concept Profile Inventories (CPI) which allowed for qualitative comparison of the concepts of the two ethnic groups who took part in the study. This phase of the study also provided some insight into the interaction of scientific information and traditional beliefs in non-Western societies. A quantitative comparison of the groups' conceptions was conducted using a Science Concept Survey instrument developed from the CPis. These data provided considerable insight into the aspects of matter where the pre-service teachers' understanding was particularly weak. On the basis of these preliminary findings, a six-week teaching program aimed at improving the students' understanding of matter was implemented in an experimental design with a group of students. The intervention involved elements of pedagogy such as the use of analogies and concept maps which were novel to most of those who took part. At the conclusion of the teaching programme, the learning outcomes of the experimental group were compared with those of a control group taught in a more traditional manner. These outcomes were assessed quantitatively by means of pre- and post-tests and a delayed post-test, and qualitatively using an interview protocol. The students' views on the various teaching strategies used with the experimental group were also sought. The findings indicate that in the domain of matter little variation exists in the alternative conceptions held by Fijian and Indian students suggesting that cultural influences may be minimal in their construction. Furthermore, the teaching strategies implemented with the experimental group of students, although largely derived from Western research, showed considerable promise in the context of Fiji, where they appeared to be effective in improving the understanding of students from different cultural backgrounds. These outcomes may be of significance to those involved in teacher education and curriculum development in other developing countries.

Monte Carlo modelling of X-ray absorptiometry and its application to body composition studies

This thesis applies Monte Carlo techniques to the study of X-ray absorptiometric methods of bone mineral measurement. These studies seek to obtain information that can be used in efforts to improve the accuracy of the bone mineral measurements. A Monte Carlo computer code for X-ray photon transport at diagnostic energies has been developed from first principles. This development was undertaken as there was no readily available code which included electron binding energy corrections for incoherent scattering and one of the objectives of the project was to study the effects of inclusion of these corrections in Monte Carlo models. The code includes the main Monte Carlo program plus utilities for dealing with input data. A number of geometrical subroutines which can be used to construct complex geometries have also been written. The accuracy of the Monte Carlo code has been evaluated against the predictions of theory and the results of experiments. The results show a high correlation with theoretical predictions. In comparisons of model results with those of direct experimental measurements, agreement to within the model and experimental variances is obtained. The code is an accurate and valid modelling tool. A study of the significance of inclusion of electron binding energy corrections for incoherent scatter in the Monte Carlo code has been made. The results show this significance to be very dependent upon the type of application. The most significant effect is a reduction of low angle scatter flux for high atomic number scatterers. To effectively apply the Monte Carlo code to the study of bone mineral density measurement by photon absorptiometry the results must be considered in the context of a theoretical framework for the extraction of energy dependent information from planar X-ray beams. Such a theoretical framework is developed and the two-dimensional nature of tissue decomposition based on attenuation measurements alone is explained. This theoretical framework forms the basis for analytical models of bone mineral measurement by dual energy X-ray photon absorptiometry techniques. Monte Carlo models of dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) have been established. These models have been used to study the contribution of scattered radiation to the measurements. It has been demonstrated that the measurement geometry has a significant effect upon the scatter contribution to the detected signal. For the geometry of the models studied in this work the scatter has no significant effect upon the results of the measurements. The model has also been used to study a proposed technique which involves dual energy X-ray transmission measurements plus a linear measurement of the distance along the ray path. This is designated as the DPA( +) technique. The addition of the linear measurement enables the tissue decomposition to be extended to three components. Bone mineral, fat and lean soft tissue are the components considered here. The results of the model demonstrate that the measurement of bone mineral using this technique is stable over a wide range of soft tissue compositions and hence would indicate the potential to overcome a major problem of the two component DEXA technique. However, the results also show that the accuracy of the DPA( +) technique is highly dependent upon the composition of the non-mineral components of bone and has poorer precision (approximately twice the coefficient of variation) than the standard DEXA measurements. These factors may limit the usefulness of the technique. These studies illustrate the value of Monte Carlo computer modelling of quantitative X-ray measurement techniques. The Monte Carlo models of bone densitometry measurement have:- 1. demonstrated the significant effects of the measurement geometry upon the contribution of scattered radiation to the measurements, 2. demonstrated that the statistical precision of the proposed DPA( +) three tissue component technique is poorer than that of the standard DEXA two tissue component technique, 3. demonstrated that the proposed DPA(+) technique has difficulty providing accurate simultaneous measurement of body composition in terms of a three component model of fat, lean soft tissue and bone mineral,4. and provided a knowledge base for input to decisions about development (or otherwise) of a physical prototype DPA( +) imaging system. The Monte Carlo computer code, data, utilities and associated models represent a set of significant, accurate and valid modelling tools for quantitative studies of physical problems in the fields of diagnostic radiology and radiography.