Optical processing devices and techniques for next generation optical networks

Este trabalho surge do interesse em substituir os nós de rede óptica baseados maioritariamente em electrónica por nós de rede baseados em tecnologia óptica. Espera-se que a tecnologia óptica permita maiores débitos binários na rede, maior transparência e maior eficiência através de novos paradigmas de comutação. Segundo esta visão, utilizou-se o MZI-SOA, um dispositivo semicondutor integrado hibridamente, para realizar funcionalidades de processamento óptico de sinal necessárias em nós de redes ópticas de nova geração. Nas novas redes ópticas são utilizados formatos de modulação avançados, com gestão da fase, pelo que foi estudado experimentalmente e por simulação o impacto da utilização destes formatos no desempenho do MZI-SOA na conversão de comprimento de onda e formato, em várias condições de operação. Foram derivadas regras de utilização para funcionamento óptimo. Foi também estudado o impacto da forma dos pulsos do sinal no desempenho do dispositivo. De seguida, o MZI-SOA foi utilizado para realizar funcionalidades temporais ao nível do bit e do pacote. Foi investigada a operação de um conversor de multiplexagem por divisão no comprimento de onda para multiplexagem por divisão temporal óptica, experimentalmente e por simulação, e de um compressor e descompressor de pacotes, por simulação. Para este último, foi investigada a operação com o MZI-SOA baseado em amplificadores ópticos de semicondutor com geometria de poço quântico e ponto quântico. Foi também realizado experimentalmente um ermutador de intervalos temporais que explora o MZI-SOA como conversor de comprimento de onda e usa um banco de linhas de atraso ópticas para introduzir no sinal um atraso seleccionável. Por fim, foi estudado analiticamente, experimentalmente e por simulação o impacto de diafonia em redes ópticas em diversas situações. Extendeu-se um modelo analítico de cálculo de desempenho para contemplar sinais distorcidos e afectados por diafonia. Estudou-se o caso de sinais muito filtrados e afectados por diafonia e mostrou-se que, para determinar correctamente as penalidades que ocorrem, ambos os efeitos devem ser considerados simultaneamente e não em separado. Foi estudada a escalabilidade limitada por diafonia de um comutador de intervalos temporais baseado em MZI-SOA a operar como comutador espacial. Mostrou-se também que sinais afectados fortemente por não-linearidades podem causar penalidades de diafonia mais elevadas do que sinais não afectados por não-linearidades. Neste trabalho foi demonstrado que o MZI-SOA permite construir vários e pertinentes circuitos ópticos, funcionando como bloco fundamental de construção, tendo sido o seu desempenho analisado, desde o nível de componente até ao nível de sistema. Tendo em conta as vantagens e desvantagens do MZI-SOA e os desenvolvimentos recentes de outras tecnologias, foram sugeridos tópicos de investigação com o intuito de evoluir para as redes ópticas de nova geração.

Polioxometalatos: dos agregados moleculares a redes e materiais

Esta dissertação teve como objectivo principal a preparação de novos materiais luminescentes contendo lantanopolioxometalatos. Foram utilizados polioxometalatos (POMs) do tipo Keggin, Wells-Dawson e [Ln(M5O18)2]9- com M (VI) = W, Mo contendo diferentes iões lantanídeo. Foram sintetizados materiais híbridos orgânico-inorgânicos com base em lantanopolioxometalatos e ligandos orgânicos. O efeito da coordenação destes ligandos orgânicos na luminescência dos iões lantanídeo (efeito de antena) foi investigado para os ácidos picolínico e 3-hidroxipicolínico. Os estudos de fotoluminescência destes materiais permitiram mostrar a existência de um processo de sensitização da emissão dos iões lantanídeo através de fenómenos de transferência de energia dos ligandos e do POM para o centro emissor. No caso particular dos materiais híbridos contendo POMs do tipo Wells-Dawson, a introdução do ligando orgânico levou à intensificação da absorção de energia através do POM, a qual era praticamente inexistente nos correspondentes lantanopolioxometalatos. Prepararam-se nanocompósitos do tipo “core/shell” contendo POMs e híbridos orgânico-inorgânicos como núcleo rodeados por uma camada de sílica. Os nanocompósitos preparados apresentam uma estrutura “core/shell” bem definida com um diâmetro médio de aproximadamente 35 nm. As técnicas de microscopia electrónica, nomeadamente o mapeamento por EDX, permitiram confirmar a presença dos POMs no núcleo das nanopartículas de sílica. A biofuncionalização destes nanocompósitos com um anticorpo foi estudada, com vista à potencial aplicação destes sistemas como biomarcadores ópticos. Os estudos de microscopia de fluorescência permitiram observar a emissão do Eu3+ presente nas nanopartículas biofuncionalizadas com o anticorpo, utilizando excitação na zona do ultravioleta. Estes resultados reforçam a viabilidade da aplicação destes sistemas como marcadores celulares em alternativa a “quantum dots” e corantes orgânicos. No âmbito dos nanomateriais, foi também preparado um material constituído por partículas de Na9[Eu(W5O18)2] de dimensões nanométricas, utilizando micelas invertidas como nanoreactores, de forma a limitar o tamanho das partículas. Foi realizada a preparação de novos materiais lamelares luminescentes por intercalação de POMs e respectivos materiais híbridos em argilas aniónicas de zinco e alumínio. A intercalação foi realizada através de um método de troca aniónica directa usando uma argila contendo nitrato como anião precursor. O estudo por difracção de raios-X revelou-se uma técnica fundamental na caracterização destes materiais, nomeadamente através da determinação da altura de galeria. A partir deste parâmetro foi possível verificar a orientação da espécie intercalada na argila. No caso da intercalação do anião do tipo Keggin, o estudo por RMN de 31P MAS permitiu identificar a espécie intercalada na argila. As propriedades de luminescência foram estudadas para a generalidade dos novos materiais preparados.

Métodos químicos de modificação superficial de nanomateriais

O objectivo geral desta tese foi investigar diversas estratégias de síntese de nanocompósitos híbridos de matriz polimérica, contendo nanopartículas inorgânicas com funcionalidades diversas. O interesse nestes nanocompósitos multifuncionais consiste no enorme potencial que apresentam para novas aplicações tecnológicas, tais como em optoelectrónica ou em medicina. No capítulo introdutório, apresenta-se uma revisão das propriedades de nanopartículas inorgânicas e nanoestruturas obtidas a partir destas, métodos de preparação e de modificação química superficial, incluindo a formação de nanocompósitos poliméricos, bem como a aplicação destas nanoestruturas em medicina e biologia. O estudo das propriedades de nanopartículas de ouro é um importante tema em Nanociência e Nanotecnologia. As propriedades singulares destas NPs apresentam uma estreita relação com o tamanho, morfologia, arranjo espacial e propriedades dieléctricas do meio circundante. No capítulo 2, é reportada a preparação de nanocompósitos utilizando miniemulsões de poli-estireno (PS) e poli-acrilato de butilo (PBA) contendo nanopartículas de ouro revestidas com moléculas orgânicas. As propriedades ópticas destas estruturas híbridas são dominadas por efeitos plasmónicos e dependem de uma forma crítica na morfologia final dos nanocompósitos. Em particular, demonstra-se aqui a possibilidade de ajustar a resposta óptica, na região do visível do espectro, através do arranjo das nanopartículas na matriz polimérica, e consequentemente o acoplamento plasmónico, utilizando nanopartículas resultantes da mesma síntese. Na generalidade, é reportada aqui uma estratégia alternativa para modificar a resposta óptica de nanocompósitos, através do controlo da morfologia do compósito final face à estratégia mais comum que envolve o controlo das características morfológicas das partículas metálicas utilizadas como materiais de partida. No Capítulo 3 apresentam-se os resultados da preparação de vários compósitos poliméricos com propriedades magnéticas de interesse prático. Em particular discute-se a síntese e propriedades magnéticas de nanopartículas de ligas metálicas de cobalto-platina (CoPt3) e ferro-platina (FePt3), assim como de óxidos de ferro (magnetite Fe3O4 e maguemite g-Fe2O3) e respectivos nanocompósitos poliméricos. A estratégia aqui descrita constitui uma via interessante de desenvolver materiais nanocompósitos com potencial aplicação em ensaios de análise de entidades biológicas in vitro, que pode ser estendido a outros materiais magnéticos. Como prova de conceito, demonstrase a bioconjugação de nanocompósitos de CoPt3/PtBA com anticorpos IgG de bovino. No capítulo 4 é descrita a preparação e propriedades ópticas de pontos quânticos (“quantum dots”, QDs) de CdSe/ZnS assim como dos seus materiais nanocompósitos poliméricos, CdSe/ZnS-PBA. Como resultado das suas propriedades ópticas singulares, os QDs têm sido extensivamente investigados como materiais inorgânicos para aplicações em dispositivos ópticos. A incorporação de QDs em matrizes poliméricas é de particular interesse, nomeadamente devido ao comportamento óptico do nanocompósito final parecer estar dependente do tipo de polímero utilizado. As propriedades ópticas dos nanocompósitos foram estudadas sistematicamente por medidas de fotoluminescência. Os nanocompósitos apresentam propriedades interessantes para potenciais aplicações biológicas em diagnóstico in vitro, funcionando como sondas biológicas luminescentes.

Nanoparticle-based biosensors: development and application

Tese dout., Ciências Biotecnológicas, Universidade do Algarve, 2009

Deteção de proteínas virais com nanossensores óticos

O desenvolvimento de tecnologias para a deteção de vírus é um tema de grande interesse em medicina de diagnóstico. Neste contexto, os biossensores têm-se revelado importantes ferramentas bioanalíticas, na medida em que permitem efetuar deteções moleculares de forma rápida, específica, reprodutível e com baixo custo associado. No âmbito desta dissertação, estabeleceram-se metodologias para a deteção fluorescente do fator de infetividade viral (Vif) do VIH através de um nanossensor ótico funcionalizado com anticorpos recombinantes anti-Vif, fragmentos variáveis de cadeia simples 4BL. Quantum dots carboxílicos conjugados a proteínas Vif são excitados a um comprimento de onda de 405 nm, transmitindo luz fluorescente a 605 nm a um fotodetetor de silício amorfo hidrogenado com um filtro de fluorescência integrado. Para implementar um sistema de deteção sensível e eficiente, estudaram-se estratégias de ativação de superfície em chips de vidro. A variabilidade das condições experimentais de um protocolo de silanização com (3-mercaptopropil)-trimetoxisilano (MPTS) foi avaliada através da análise de ângulos de contacto e densidades moleculares de fluoresceína funcionalizada com maleimida. Estabeleceu-se que, uma incubação dos substratos por 4 h com 5% (w/v) MPTS, seguida de cura a 110 ºC por 2 h, e redução com 10 mM ditiotreitol por 30 min, promove a formação de camadas de organosilanos de qualidade com grupos tiol reativos bem orientados. Estratégias de imobilização do elemento recetor foram testadas em substratos de vidro ativados e em sistemas de microfluídica vidro/PDMS, tomando por base o tag de afinidade, glutationa S-transferase (GST), do anticorpo recombinante. Vidros funcionalizados com glutationa e anti-GST mostraram-se igualmente reativos ao anticorpo GST-4BL, resultando uma capacidade de ligação do antigénio de aproximadamente 4.76 x 1010 moléculas/cm2 de QD-Vif, o que corresponde a 15% da cobertura máxima de superfície. Dos ensaios em sistemas de microfluídica resultaram sinais fracos e poucos reprodutíveis, destacando a necessidade de desenvolver metodologias de funcionalização mais apropriadas.

Molecularly imprinted polymer based on MWCNTs-QDs as fluorescent biomimetic sensor for specific recognition of target protein

A novel molecularly imprinted optosensing material based on multi-walled carbon nanotube-quantum dots (MWCNT-QDs) has been designed and synthesized for its high selectivity, sensitivity and specificity in the recognition of a target protein bovine serum albumin (BSA). Molecularly imprinted polymer coated MWCNT-QDs using BSA as the template (BMIP-coated MWCNT-QDs) exhibits a fast mass-transfer speed with a response time of 25 min. It is found that the BSA as a target protein can significantly quench the luminescence of BMIP-coated MWCNT-QDs in a concentration-dependent manner that is best described by a Stem-Volmer equation. The K-SV for BSA is much higher than bovine hemoglobin and lysozyme, implying a highly selective recognition of the BMIP-coated MWCNT-QDs to BSA. Under optimal conditions, the relative fluorescence intensity of BMIP-coated MWCNT-QDs decreases linearly with the increasing target protein BSA in the concentration range of 5.0 x 10(-7)-35.0 x 10(-7) M with a detection limit of 80 nM.

Études des fuites excitoniques dans des familles de boîtes quantiques d'InAs/InP par PLRT par addition de fréquences

Ce mémoire porte sur les mécanismes de relaxation et de fuite des excitons dans des systèmes de boîtes quantiques(BQs) d’InAs/InP. Les systèmes sont composés d’un sub- strat volumique d’InP, appelé matrice (M), d’un puits quantique d’InAs, nommé couche de mouillage (CM), et des familles de BQs d’InAs. La distinction entre les familles est faite par le nombre de monocouche d’épaisseur des boîtes qui sont beaucoup plus larges que hautes. Une revue de littérature retrace les principaux mécanismes de relaxation et de fuite des excitons dans les systèmes. Ensuite, différents modèles portant sur la fuite thermique des excitons des BQs sont comparés. Les types de caractérisations déjà produites et les spécifications des croissances des échantillons sont présentés. L’approche adoptée pour ce mémoire a été de caractériser temporellement la dynamique des BQs avec des mesures d’absorbtion transitoire et de photoluminescence résolue en temps (PLRT) par addition de fréquences. L’expérience d’absorption transitoire n’a pas fait ressortir de résultats très probants, mais elle est expliquée en détails. Les mesures de PLRT ont permis de suivre en température le temps de vie effectif des excitons dans des familles de BQs. Ensuite, avec un modèle de bilan détaillé, qui a été bien explicité, il a été possible d’identifier le rôle de la M et de la CM dans la relaxation et la fuite des excitons dans les BQs. Les ajustements montrent plus précisément que la fuite de porteurs dans les BQs se fait sous la forme de paires d’électrons-trous corrélées.

Étude de la formation et de l'évolution de nanostructures par méthodes Monte Carlo

Cette thèse, composée de quatre articles scientifiques, porte sur les méthodes numériques atomistiques et leur application à des systèmes semi-conducteurs nanostructurés. Nous introduisons les méthodes accélérées conçues pour traiter les événements activés, faisant un survol des développements du domaine. Suit notre premier article, qui traite en détail de la technique d'activation-relaxation cinétique (ART-cinétique), un algorithme Monte Carlo cinétique hors-réseau autodidacte basé sur la technique de l'activation-relaxation nouveau (ARTn), dont le développement ouvre la voie au traitement exact des interactions élastiques tout en permettant la simulation de matériaux sur des plages de temps pouvant atteindre la seconde. Ce développement algorithmique, combiné à des données expérimentales récentes, ouvre la voie au second article. On y explique le relâchement de chaleur par le silicium cristallin suite à son implantation ionique avec des ions de Si à 3 keV. Grâce à nos simulations par ART-cinétique et l'analyse de données obtenues par nanocalorimétrie, nous montrons que la relaxation est décrite par un nouveau modèle en deux temps: "réinitialiser et relaxer" ("Replenish-and-Relax"). Ce modèle, assez général, peut potentiellement expliquer la relaxation dans d'autres matériaux désordonnés. Par la suite, nous poussons l'analyse plus loin. Le troisième article offre une analyse poussée des mécanismes atomistiques responsables de la relaxation lors du recuit. Nous montrons que les interactions élastiques entre des défauts ponctuels et des petits complexes de défauts contrôlent la relaxation, en net contraste avec la littérature qui postule que des "poches amorphes" jouent ce rôle. Nous étudions aussi certains sous-aspects de la croissance de boîtes quantiques de Ge sur Si (001). En effet, après une courte mise en contexte et une introduction méthodologique supplémentaire, le quatrième article décrit la structure de la couche de mouillage lors du dépôt de Ge sur Si (001) à l'aide d'une implémentation QM/MM du code BigDFT-ART. Nous caractérisons la structure de la reconstruction 2xN de la surface et abaissons le seuil de la température nécessaire pour la diffusion du Ge en sous-couche prédit théoriquement par plus de 100 K.

Nanotoxicité des points quantiques : étude in vitro chez les cellules épithéliales alvéolaires humaines A549

Les nanoparticules (NPs) sont définies comme des particules ayant au moins une dimension comprise entre 1 à 100 nanomètres. Plusieurs études in vitro et in vivo indiquent que les NPs pourraient constituer un risque potentiel pour la santé des personnes les synthétisant ou les manipulant lors de leur incorporation dans d’autres matériaux. La nanotoxicologie est un domaine de recherche émergeant. Les propriétés physico-chimiques particulières des NPs sont responsables d’interférences non spécifiques entre les nanomatériaux et certains des composants des essais in vitro pouvant mener à de faux résultats. L’inhalation a été identifiée comme une voie d’exposition présentant un risque important de toxicité. Dans le cadre de ce projet, nous avons utilisé la lignée de cellules épithéliales alvéolaires humaines, A549. Nous avons étudié chez cette lignée les conséquences de l’exposition aux points quantiques (PQs), NPs d’intérêt pour leurs applications potentielles en médecine (nanovecteur ou nanosonde). La mise au point des conditions expérimentales (interférence entre l’essai LDH et le milieu de culture) a permis de valider les essais de cytotoxicité MTS et LDH en présence des PQs. Nous avons montré que les PQs présentaient une cytotoxicité à court et long terme, et nous avons par la suite étudié un des mécanismes de toxicité potentielle, la mesure du cadmium (Cd2+) libéré des PQs. Nous avons déterminé que la mesure du Cd2+ comportait plusieurs interférences qui invalident cet essai. En conclusion, notre étude a permis d’identifier des interférences qui remettent en question plusieurs conclusions d’études publiées qui n’ont pas vérifié l’existence de telles interférences.

Growth and Characterization of ZnO based Heterojunction diodes and ZnO Nanostructuresby Pulsed Laser Ablation

Transparent conducting oxides (TCO’s) have been known and used for technologically important applications for more than 50 years. The oxide materials such as In2O3, SnO2 and impurity doped SnO2: Sb, SnO2: F and In2O3: Sn (indium tin oxide) were primarily used as TCO’s. Indium based oxides had been widely used as TCO’s for the past few decades. But the current increase in the cost of indium and scarcity of this material created the difficulty in obtaining low cost TCO’s. Hence the search for alternative TCO material has been a topic of active research for the last few decades. This resulted in the development of various binary and ternary compounds. But the advantages of using binary oxides are the easiness to control the composition and deposition parameters. ZnO has been identified as the one of the promising candidate for transparent electronic applications owing to its exciting optoelectronic properties. Some optoelectronics applications of ZnO overlap with that of GaN, another wide band gap semiconductor which is widely used for the production of green, blue-violet and white light emitting devices. However ZnO has some advantages over GaN among which are the availability of fairly high quality ZnO bulk single crystals and large excitonic binding energy. ZnO also has much simpler crystal-growth technology, resulting in a potentially lower cost for ZnO based devices. Most of the TCO’s are n-type semiconductors and are utilized as transparent electrodes in variety of commercial applications such as photovoltaics, electrochromic windows, flat panel displays. TCO’s provide a great potential for realizing diverse range of active functions, novel functions can be integrated into the materials according to the requirement. However the application of TCO’s has been restricted to transparent electrodes, ii notwithstanding the fact that TCO’s are n-type semiconductors. The basic reason is the lack of p-type TCO, many of the active functions in semiconductor originate from the nature of pn-junction. In 1997, H. Kawazoe et al reported the CuAlO2 as the first p-type TCO along with the chemical design concept for the exploration of other p-type TCO’s. This has led to the fabrication of all transparent diode and transistors. Fabrication of nanostructures of TCO has been a focus of an ever-increasing number of researchers world wide, mainly due to their unique optical and electronic properties which makes them ideal for a wide spectrum of applications ranging from flexible displays, quantum well lasers to in vivo biological imaging and therapeutic agents. ZnO is a highly multifunctional material system with highly promising application potential for UV light emitting diodes, diode lasers, sensors, etc. ZnO nanocrystals and nanorods doped with transition metal impurities have also attracted great interest, recently, for their spin-electronic applications This thesis summarizes the results on the growth and characterization of ZnO based diodes and nanostructures by pulsed laser ablation. Various ZnO based heterojunction diodes have been fabricated using pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and their electrical characteristics were interpreted using existing models. Pulsed laser ablation has been employed to fabricate ZnO quantum dots, ZnO nanorods and ZnMgO/ZnO multiple quantum well structures with the aim of studying the luminescent properties.

Synthesis and Laser induced Studies of nanosized ZnO for Photonic Applications

Over the past few years, a little word with big potential has been rapidly entering into the world's consciousness-'nano'. Nanoscience and technology is a multidisciplinary field, involving the fabrication and understanding of matter at the finest level of a few nanomters.This thesis is about the synthesis and laser induced studies of nanosized ZnO,a versatile material with a wide range of applications.After synthesizing colloids and films of nano ZnO,the samples are studied using different optical methods.Interactions of intense laser beams with nanosized particles are found to open up many interesting scenarios with possible applications in the field of photonics.

Novel Electrochemical and Fluorescence Sensors for Food Additives and Neurotransmitters

There is an enormous demand for chemical sensors in many areas and disciplines including chemistry, biology, clinical analysis, environmental science. Chemical sensing refers to the continuous monitoring of the presence of chemical species and is a rapidly developing field of science and technology. They are analytical devices which transform chemical information generating from a reaction of the analyte into an measurable signal. Due to their high selectivity, sensitivity, fast response and low cost, electrochemical and fluorescent sensors have attracted great interest among the researchers in various fields. Development of four electrochemical sensors and three fluorescent sensors for food additives and neurotransmitters are presented in the thesis. Based on the excellent properties of multi walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT), poly (L-cysteine) and gold nanoparticles (AuNP) four voltammetric sensors were developed for various food additives like propyl gallate, allura red and sunset yellow. Nanosized fluorescent probes including gold nanoclusters (AuNCs) and CdS quantum dots (QDs) were used for the fluorescent sensing of butylated hydroxyanisole, dopamine and norepinephrine. A total of seven sensors including four electrochemical sensors and three fluorescence sensors have been developed for food additives and neurotransmitters.

Preparation and Study of Optical Properties of CdS, CdS-TiO2 and CdS-Au Nanocomposites for Photonic Applications

Nanophotonics can be regarded as a fusion of nanotechnology and photonics and it is an emerging field providing researchers opportunities in fundamental science and new technologies. In recent times many new methodsand techniques have been developed to prepare materials at nanoscale dimensions. Most of these materials exhibit unique and interesting optical properties and behavior. Many of these have been found to be very useful to develop new devices and systems such as tracers in biological systems, optical limiters, light emitters and energy harvesters. This thesis presents a summary of the work done by the author in the field by choosing a few semiconductor systems to prepare nanomaterials and nanocomposites. Results of the study of linear and nonlinear optical properties of materials thus synthesized are also presented in the various chapters of this thesis. CdS is the material chosen here and the methods and the studies of the detailed investigation are presented in this thesis related to the optical properties of CdS nanoparticles and its composites. Preparation and characterization methods and experimental techniques adopted for the investigations were illustrated in chapter 2 of this thesis. Chapter 3 discusses the preparation of CdS, TiO2 and Au nanoparticles. We observed that the fluorescence behaviour of the CdS nanoparticles, prepared by precipitation technique, depends on excitation wavelength. It was found that the peak emission wavelength can be shifted by as much as 147nm by varyingthe excitation wavelengths and the reason for this phenomenon is the selective excitation of the surface states in the nanoparticles. This provided certain amount of tunability for the emission which results from surface states.TiO2 nanoparticle colloids were prepared by hydrothermal method. The optical absorption study showed a blue shift of absorption edge, indicating quantum confinement effect. The large spectral range investigated allows observing simultaneously direct and indirect band gap optical recombination. The emission studies carried out show four peaks, which are found to be generated from excitonic as well as surface state transitions. It was found that the emission wavelengths of these colloidal nanoparticles and annealed nanoparticles showed two category of surface state emission in addition to the excitonic emission. Au nanoparticles prepared by Turkevich method showed nanoparticles of size below 5nm using plasmonic absorption calculation. It was also found that there was almost no variation in size as the concentration of precursor was changed from 0.2mM to 0.4mM.We have observed SHG from CdS nanostructured thin film prepared onglass substrate by chemical bath deposition technique. The results point out that studied sample has in-plane isotropy. The relative values of tensor components of the second-order susceptibility were determined to be 1, zzz 0.14, xxz and 0.07. zxx These values suggest that the nanocrystals are oriented along the normal direction. However, the origin of such orientation remains unknown at present. Thus CdS is a promising nonlinear optical material for photonic applications, particularly for integrated photonic devices. CdS Au nanocomposite particles were prepared by mixing CdS nanoparticles with Au colloidal nanoparticles. Optical absorption study of these nanoparticles in PVA solution suggests that absorption tail was red shifted compared to CdS nanoparticles. TEM and EDS analysis suggested that the amount of Au nanoparticles present on CdS nanoparticles is very small. Fluorescence emission is unaffected indicating the presence of low level of Au nanoparticles. CdS:Au PVA and CdS PVA nanocomposite films were fabricated and optically characterized. The results showed a red-shift for CdS:Au PVA film for absorption tail compared to CdS PVA film. Nonlinear optical analysis showed a huge nonlinear optical absorption for CdS:Au PVA nanocomposite and CdS:PVA films. Also an enhancement in nonlinear optical absorption is found for CdS:Au PVA thin film compared to the CdS PVA thin film. This enhancement is due to the combined effect of plasmonic as well as excitonic contribution at high input intensity. Samples of CdS doped with TiO2 were also prepared and the linear optical absorption spectra of these nanocompositeparticles clearly indicated the influence of TiO2 nanoparticles. TEM and EDS studies have confirmed the presence of TiO2 on CdS nanoparticles. Fluorescence studies showed that there is an increase in emission peak around 532nm for CdS nanoparticles. Nonlinear optical analysis of CdS:TiO2 PVA nanocomposite films indicated a large nonlinear optical absorption compared to that of CdS:PVA nanocomposite film. The values of nonlinear optical absorption suggests that these nanocomposite particles can be employed for optical limiting applications. CdSe-CdS and CdSe-ZnS core-shell QDs with varying shell size were characterized using UV–VIS spectroscopy. Optical absorption and TEM analysis of these QDs suggested a particle size around 5 nm. It is clearly shown that the surface coating influences the optical properties of QDs in terms of their size. Fluorescence studies reveal the presence of trap states in CdSe-CdS and CdSe- ZnS QDs. Trap states showed an increase as a shell for CdS is introduced and increasing the shell size of CdS beyond a certain value leads to a decrease in the trap state emission. There is no sizeable nonlinear optical absorption observed. In the case of CdSe- ZnS QDs, the trap state emission gets enhanced with the increase in ZnS shell thickness. The enhancement of emission from trap states transition due to the increase in thickness of ZnS shell gives a clear indication of distortion occurring in the spherical symmetry of CdSe quantum dots. Consequently the nonlinear optical absorption of CdSe-ZnS QDs gets increased and the optical limiting threshold is decreased as the shell thickness is increased in respect of CdSe QDs. In comparison with CdSe-CdS QDs, CdSe-ZnS QDs possess much better optical properties and thereby CdSe-ZnS is a strong candidate for nonlinear as well as linear optical applications.

GaInAsP-basierende Resonatorstrukturen

Physikalische Grundlagenforschung und anwendungsorientierte physikalische Forschung auf den Gebieten nanoskaliger kristalliner und amorpher fester Körper haben in vielfacher Weise eine große Bedeutung. Neben dem Verständnis für die Struktur der Materie und die Wechselwirkung von Objekten von der Größe einiger Atome ist die Erkenntnis über die physikalischen Eigenschaften nanostrukturierter Systeme von hohem Interesse. Diese Forschung eröffnet die Möglichkeit, die mit der Mikroelektronik begonnene Miniaturisierung fortzusetzen und wird darüber hinaus neue Anwendungsfelder eröffnen. Das Erarbeiten der physikalischen Grundlagen der Methoden zur Herstellung und Strukturierung ist dabei zwingend notwendig, da hier Wirkungsprinzipien dominieren, die erst bei Strukturgrößen im Nanometerbereich auftreten oder hinreichend stark ausgeprägt sind. Insbesondere Halbleitermaterialien sind hier von großem Interesse. Die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Resonatorstrukturen, die auf dem kristallinen Verbindungshalbleitermaterial GaInAsP/InP basieren, erschließen wichtige Anwendungsfelder im Bereich der optischen Datenübertragung sowie der optischen Sensorik. Hergestellt wird das Halbleitermaterial mit der Metallorganischen Gasphasenepitaxie. Die experimentell besimmten Kenngrößen lassen Rückschlüsse auf die Güte der Materialien, die quantenmechanischen Wirkungsprinzipien und die Bauelementcharakteristik zu und führen zu optimal angepassten Kristallstrukturen. Auf Basis dieser optimierten Materialien wurde ein durchstimmbarer Fabry-Perot-Filter hergestellt, der aus einer Kombination aus InP-Membranen und Luftspalten besteht und elektromechanisch aktuiert werden kann. Das GaInAsP dient hierbei als wenige hundert nm dicke Opferschicht, die ätztechnisch hochselektiv beseitigt wird. Die Qualität der Grenzflächen zum InP ist entscheidend für die Qualität der freigeätzten Kavitäten und damit für die mechanische Gesamtstabilität der Struktur. Der in dieser Arbeit beschriebene Filter hat eine Zentralwellenlänge im Bereich von 1550 nm und weist einen Durchstimmbereich von 221 nm auf. Erzielt wurde dieser Wert durch ein konsistentes Modell der wirkenden Verspannungskomponenten und einer optimierten epitaktischen Kontrolle der Verspannungsparameter. Das realisierte Filterbauelement ist vielversprechend für den Einsatz in der optischen Kommunikation im Bereich von WDM (wavelength division multiplexing) Anwendungen. Als weitere Resonatorstrukur wurde ein Asymmetrisch gekoppelter Quantenfilm als optisch aktives Medium, bestehend aus GaInAsP mit variierender Materialkomposition und Verspannung, untersucht, um sein Potential für eine breitbandige Emission zu untersuchen und mit bekannten Modellen zu vergleichen. Als Bauelementdesign wurde eine kantenemittierende Superlumineszenzleuchtdiode gewählt. Das Ergebnis ist eine Emissionskurve von 100 nm, die eine höhere Unabhängigkeit vom Injektionsstrom aufweist als andere bekannte Konzepte. Die quantenmechanischen Wirkungsprinzipien - im wesentlichen die Kopplung der beiden asymmetrischen Potentialtöpfe und die damit verbundene Kopplung der Wellenfunktionen - werden qualitativ diskutiert. Insgesamt bestätigt sich die Eignung des Materials GaInAsP auch für neuartige, qualitativ höchst anspruchsvolle Resonatorstrukturen und die Bedeutung der vorgestellten und untersuchten Resonatorkonzepte. Die vorgestellten Methoden, Materialien und Bauelemente liefern aufgrund ihrer Konzeption und der eingehenden experimentellen Untersuchungen einen Beitrag sowohl zu den zugrunde liegenden mechanischen, optoelektronischen und quantenmechanischen Wirkungsprinzipien der Strukturen, als auch zur Realisierung neuer optoelektronischer Bauelemente.

High-Speed Semiconductor Lasers based on Low-Dimensional Active Materials for Optical Telecommunication

The scope of this work is the fundamental growth, tailoring and characterization of self-organized indium arsenide quantum dots (QDs) and their exploitation as active region for diode lasers emitting in the 1.55 µm range. This wavelength regime is especially interesting for long-haul telecommunications as optical fibers made from silica glass have the lowest optical absorption. Molecular Beam Epitaxy is utilized as fabrication technique for the quantum dots and laser structures. The results presented in this thesis depict the first experimental work for which this reactor was used at the University of Kassel. Most research in the field of self-organized quantum dots has been conducted in the InAs/GaAs material system. It can be seen as the model system of self-organized quantum dots, but is not suitable for the targeted emission wavelength. Light emission from this system at 1.55 µm is hard to accomplish. To stay as close as possible to existing processing technology, the In(AlGa)As/InP (100) material system is deployed. Depending on the epitaxial growth technique and growth parameters this system has the drawback of producing a wide range of nano species besides quantum dots. Best known are the elongated quantum dashes (QDash). Such structures are preferentially formed, if InAs is deposited on InP. This is related to the low lattice-mismatch of 3.2 %, which is less than half of the value in the InAs/GaAs system. The task of creating round-shaped and uniform QDs is rendered more complex considering exchange effects of arsenic and phosphorus as well as anisotropic effects on the surface that do not need to be dealt with in the InAs/GaAs case. While QDash structures haven been studied fundamentally as well as in laser structures, they do not represent the theoretical ideal case of a zero-dimensional material. Creating round-shaped quantum dots on the InP(100) substrate remains a challenging task. Details of the self-organization process are still unknown and the formation of the QDs is not fully understood yet. In the course of the experimental work a novel growth concept was discovered and analyzed that eases the fabrication of QDs. It is based on different crystal growth and ad-atom diffusion processes under supply of different modifications of the arsenic atmosphere in the MBE reactor. The reactor is equipped with special valved cracking effusion cells for arsenic and phosphorus. It represents an all-solid source configuration that does not rely on toxic gas supply. The cracking effusion cell are able to create different species of arsenic and phosphorus. This constitutes the basis of the growth concept. With this method round-shaped QD ensembles with superior optical properties and record-low photoluminescence linewidth were achieved. By systematically varying the growth parameters and working out a detailed analysis of the experimental data a range of parameter values, for which the formation of QDs is favored, was found. A qualitative explanation of the formation characteristics based on the surface migration of In ad-atoms is developed. Such tailored QDs are finally implemented as active region in a self-designed diode laser structure. A basic characterization of the static and temperature-dependent properties was carried out. The QD lasers exceed a reference quantum well laser in terms of inversion conditions and temperature-dependent characteristics. Pulsed output powers of several hundred milli watt were measured at room temperature. In particular, the lasers feature a high modal gain that even allowed cw-emission at room temperature of a processed ridge wave guide device as short as 340 µm with output powers of 17 mW. Modulation experiments performed at the Israel Institute of Technology (Technion) showed a complex behavior of the QDs in the laser cavity. Despite the fact that the laser structure is not fully optimized for a high-speed device, data transmission capabilities of 15 Gb/s combined with low noise were achieved. To the best of the author`s knowledge, this renders the lasers the fastest QD devices operating at 1.55 µm. The thesis starts with an introductory chapter that pronounces the advantages of optical fiber communication in general. Chapter 2 will introduce the fundamental knowledge that is necessary to understand the importance of the active region`s dimensions for the performance of a diode laser. The novel growth concept and its experimental analysis are presented in chapter 3. Chapter 4 finally contains the work on diode lasers.