Mortality Rate: 150 People Died Daily Artworks

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Mortality Rate: 150 People Died Daily Artworks

postwar version of F 38352

Dosage Compensation And Sex Determination In Drosophila - Mechanism Of Measurement Of The X/A Ratio

We propose a molecular mechanism for the intra-cellular measurement of the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes, a process central to both sex determination and dosage compensation in Drosophila melanogaster. In addition to the two loci, da and Sxl, which have been shown by Cline (Genetics, 90, 683, 1978)and others to be involved in these processes, we postulate two other loci, one autosomal (ω) and the other, X-linked (π). The product of the autosomal locus da stimulates ω and initiates synthesis of a limited quantity of repressor. Sxl and π ,both of which are X-linked, compete for this repressor as well as for RNA polymerase. It is assumed that Sxl has lower affinity than π for repressor as well as polymerase and that the binding of polymerase to one of these sites modulates the binding affinity of the other site for the enzyme. It can be shown that as a result of these postulated interactions transcription from the Sxl site is proportional to the X/A ratio such that the levels of Sxl+ product are low in males, high in females and intermediate in the intersexes. If, as proposed by Cline, the Sxl- product is an inhibitor of X chromosome activity, this would result in dosage compensation. The model leads to the conclusion that high levels of Sxl+ product promote a female phenotype and low levels, a male phenotype. One interesting consequence of the assumptions on which the model is based is that the level of Sxl+ product in the cell, when examined as a function of increasing repressor concentration, first goes up and then decreases, yielding a bell-shaped curve. This feature of the model provides an explanation for some of the remarkable interactions among mutants at the Sxl, da and mle loci and leads to several predictions. The proposed mechanism may also have relevance to certain other problems, such as size regulation during development, which seem to involve measurement of ratios at the cellular level.

Texture dependent stress corrosion failure of commercial titanium sheets in bromine-methanol solution

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) characteristics of agr-titanium sheets in a bromine-methanol solution have been studied in the annealed and cold-rolled conditions using longitudinal and transverse specimens. The times to failure for annealed longitudinal specimens were longer than those for similarly tested transverse specimens. The cold-rolled specimens developed resistance to SCC, but failed by cleavage when notched, unlike the intergranular separation in annealed titanium. The apparent activation energy was found to be texture dependent and was in the range 30 to 51 kJ mol–1 for annealed titanium, and 15kJ mol–1 for cold-rolled titanium. The dependence of SCC behaviour on the texture is related to the changes in the crack initiation times. These are caused by changes in the passivation and repassivation characteristics of the particular thickness plane. The thickness planes are identified with the help of X-ray pole figures obtained on annealed and cold-rolled material. On the basis of the activation energy and the electrochemical measurements, the mechanism of SCC in annealed titanium is identified to be the one involving stress-aided anodic dissolution. On the other hand, the results on the cold-rolled titanium are in support of the hydrogen embrittlement mechanism consisting of hydride precipitation. The cleavage planes identified from the texture data match with the reported habit planes for hydride formation.

Nuorten männiköiden kehitys - taimikonhoito ja ensiharvennus

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of location, site type, regeneration method and precommercial thinning on the characteristics and development of young, even-aged, pure Scots pine stands. In addition, the effects of timing and intensity of first commercial thinning on the yield and profitability during the rotation period were also studied. The stand characteristics and external quality of young Scots pine stands and stand-level growth models were based on extensive inventory data of the Finnish Forest Research Institute for young Scots pine stands (3 measurement times, 192 stands). The effect of precommercial thinning on stand development was examined on the basis of long-term experiments (13 stands, 169 plots). The effect of timing and intensity of the first commercial thinning on yield and profitability were based on measurements made in first commercial thinnings (27 stands of Metsähallitus), and the further stand development was modeled using the MOTTI simulator. The thesis was based on four articles and a summary. Stand level growth models were developed for young, even-aged Scots pine stands. The models reliably predicted the development up until the first commercial thinning stage. The stand density of young Scots pine stands in Finland was moderately low compared to the target values. In addition, the external quality of pines was low on average. The low stand density and poor external quality will result in the need for quality tree selection in thinnings, if high quality sawn timber is required. In Northern Finland, only 20% of the dominant trees were classified as normal. This will lead to the situation where external quality will remain relatively poor up until the end of rotation. Early and light precommercial thinning (Hdom 3 m, to a density of 3000 trees per hectare) increased the thinning removal by 40% compared to late and more intensive precommercial thinning (at 7 meters to a density of 2000 trees per hectare). A model for the effect of precommercial thinning on merchantable thinning removal at the first commercial thinning was developed for forest management planning purposes. When the recommended time of first commercial thinning was delayed from a dominant height of 12 m to 16 m, or by ten years, the yield of merchantable wood was doubled. Simultaneously, the current value of the stumpage revenues (with 4% interest rate) was increased on the average by 65% (330 € per hectare). Variation in stumpage prices or interest rates did not have any effect on the final results. Without exception, delaying the first commercial thinning by ten years seemed to be the most profitable method. This presupposes that precommercial thinning has been carried out at the right time and that tree quality aspects do not be specially considered. Furthermore, the wood yield and economic outcome from the entire rotation were similar regardless of whether the first thinning was performed at the time currently recommended or ten years later.

Analyzing hysteresis behavior of capacitance-voltage characteristics of IZO/C₆₀/pentacene/Au diodes with a hole-transport electron-blocking polyterpenol layer by electric-field-induced optical second-harmonic generation measurement

By using electric-field-induced optical second-harmonic generation (EFISHG) measurement, we analyzed hysteresis behavior of capacitance-voltage (C-V) characteristics of IZO/polyterpenol (PT)/C₆₀/pentacene/Au diodes, where PT layer is actively working as a hole-transport electron-blocking layer. The EFISHG measurement verified the presence of interface accumulated charges in the diodes, and showed that a space charge electric field from accumulated excess electrons (holes) that remain at the PT/C₆₀ (C₆₀/pentacene) interface is responsible for the hysteresis loop observed in the C-V characteristics.

Measurement of resistivity and dielectric constant of beach-sand minerals

Resistivity and dielectric constant are important parameters which influence the separation of particles in a drum-type electrostatic separator. The paper provides details of the measurement of the parameters and data on the magnitude of resistivity and dielectric constant of the minerals of beach sand.

The ozone transfer between atmosphere and vegetation. A study on Scots pine in the field

Ozone (O3) is a reactive gas present in the troposphere in the range of parts per billion (ppb), i.e. molecules of O3 in 109 molecules of air. Its strong oxidative capacity makes it a key element in tropospheric chemistry and a threat to the integrity of materials, including living organisms. Knowledge and control of O3 levels are an issue in relation to indoor air quality, building material endurance, respiratory human disorders, and plant performance. Ozone is also a greenhouse gas and its abundance is relevant to global warming. The interaction of the lower troposphere with vegetated landscapes results in O3 being removed from the atmosphere by reactions that lead to the oxidation of plant-related components. Details on the rate and pattern of removal on different landscapes as well as the ultimate mechanisms by which this occurs are not fully resolved. This thesis analysed the controlling processes of the transfer of ozone at the air-plant interface. Improvement in the knowledge of these processes benefits the prediction of both atmospheric removal of O3 and its impact on vegetation. This study was based on the measurement and analysis of multi-year field measurements of O3 flux to Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) foliage with a shoot-scale gas-exchange enclosure system. In addition, the analyses made use of simultaneous CO2 and H2O exchange, canopy-scale O3, CO2 and H2O exchange, foliage surface wetness, and environmental variables. All data was gathered at the SMEAR measuring station (southern Finland). Enclosure gas-exchange techniques such as those commonly used for the measure of CO2 and water vapour can be applied to the measure of ozone gas-exchange in the field. Through analysis of the system dynamics the occurring disturbances and noise can be identified. In the system used in this study, the possible artefacts arising from the ozone reactivity towards the system materials in combination with low background concentrations need to be taken into account. The main artefact was the loss of ozone towards the chamber walls, which was found to be very variable. The level of wall-loss was obtained from simultaneous and continuous measurements, and was included in the formulation of the mass balance of O3 concentration inside the chamber. The analysis of the field measurements in this study show that the flux of ozone to the Scots pine foliage is generated in about equal proportions by stomatal and non-stomatal controlled processes. Deposition towards foliage and forest is sustained also during night and winter when stomatal gas-exchange is low or absent. The non-stomatal portion of the flux was analysed further. The pattern of flux in time was found to be an overlap of the patterns of biological activity and presence of wetness in the environment. This was seen to occur both at the shoot and canopy scale. The presence of wetness enhanced the flux not only in the presence of liquid droplets but also during existence of a moisture film on the plant surfaces. The existence of these films and their relation to the ozone sinks was determined by simultaneous measurements of leaf surface wetness and ozone flux. The results seem to suggest ozone would be reacting at the foliage surface and the reaction rate would be mediated by the presence of surface wetness. Alternative mechanisms were discussed, including nocturnal stomatal aperture and emission of reactive volatile compounds. The prediction of the total flux could thus be based on a combination of a model of stomatal behaviour and a model of water absorption on the foliage surfaces. The concepts behind the division of stomatal and non-stomatal sinks were reconsidered. This study showed that it is theoretically possible that a sink located before or near the stomatal aperture prevents or diminishes the diffusion of ozone towards the intercellular air space of the mesophyll. This obstacle to stomatal diffusion happens only under certain conditions, which include a very low presence of reaction sites in the mesophyll, an extremely strong sink located on the outer surfaces or stomatal pore. The relevance, or existence, of this process in natural conditions would need to be assessed further. Potentially strong reactions were considered, including dissolved sulphate, volatile organic compounds, and apoplastic ascorbic acid. Information on the location and the relative abundance of these compounds would be valuable. The highest total flux towards the foliage and forest happens when both the plant activity and ambient moisture are high. The highest uptake into the interior of the foliage happens at large stomatal apertures, provided that scavenging reactions located near the stomatal pore are weak or non-existent. The discussion covers the methodological developments of this study, the relevance of the different controlling factors of ozone flux, the partition amongst its component, and the possible mechanisms of non-stomatal uptake.

Automatic Lameness Detection in a Milking Robot : Instrumentation, measurement software, algorithms for data analysis and a neural network model

The aim of this thesis is to develop a fully automatic lameness detection system that operates in a milking robot. The instrumentation, measurement software, algorithms for data analysis and a neural network model for lameness detection were developed. Automatic milking has become a common practice in dairy husbandry, and in the year 2006 about 4000 farms worldwide used over 6000 milking robots. There is a worldwide movement with the objective of fully automating every process from feeding to milking. Increase in automation is a consequence of increasing farm sizes, the demand for more efficient production and the growth of labour costs. As the level of automation increases, the time that the cattle keeper uses for monitoring animals often decreases. This has created a need for systems for automatically monitoring the health of farm animals. The popularity of milking robots also offers a new and unique possibility to monitor animals in a single confined space up to four times daily. Lameness is a crucial welfare issue in the modern dairy industry. Limb disorders cause serious welfare, health and economic problems especially in loose housing of cattle. Lameness causes losses in milk production and leads to early culling of animals. These costs could be reduced with early identification and treatment. At present, only a few methods for automatically detecting lameness have been developed, and the most common methods used for lameness detection and assessment are various visual locomotion scoring systems. The problem with locomotion scoring is that it needs experience to be conducted properly, it is labour intensive as an on-farm method and the results are subjective. A four balance system for measuring the leg load distribution of dairy cows during milking in order to detect lameness was developed and set up in the University of Helsinki Research farm Suitia. The leg weights of 73 cows were successfully recorded during almost 10,000 robotic milkings over a period of 5 months. The cows were locomotion scored weekly, and the lame cows were inspected clinically for hoof lesions. Unsuccessful measurements, caused by cows standing outside the balances, were removed from the data with a special algorithm, and the mean leg loads and the number of kicks during milking was calculated. In order to develop an expert system to automatically detect lameness cases, a model was needed. A probabilistic neural network (PNN) classifier model was chosen for the task. The data was divided in two parts and 5,074 measurements from 37 cows were used to train the model. The operation of the model was evaluated for its ability to detect lameness in the validating dataset, which had 4,868 measurements from 36 cows. The model was able to classify 96% of the measurements correctly as sound or lame cows, and 100% of the lameness cases in the validation data were identified. The number of measurements causing false alarms was 1.1%. The developed model has the potential to be used for on-farm decision support and can be used in a real-time lameness monitoring system.

Liveweight gain and feed intake of weaned Bali cattle fed a range of diets in Central Sulawesi, Indonesia

Three experiments were conducted to determine liveweight (W) gain and feed and water intake of weaned Bali cattle offered a range of feed types. In each experiment, 18 weaned entire male Bali cattle were allocated to three treatment groups in a completely randomised block design, with six replicates (animals) per treatment. The dietary treatments were: Experiment 1, native grass fed ad libitum, native grass supplemented with rice bran at 10 g dry matter (DM)/kg W.day and native grass supplemented with a mixture of rice bran and copra meal in equal proportions fed at 10 g DM/kg W.day; Experiment 2, elephant grass hay fed ad libitum, elephant grass supplemented with gliricidia at 10 g DM/kg W.day, and gliricidia fed ad libitum; and Experiment 3, corn stover fed ad libitum, corn stover supplemented with gliricidia at 10 g DM/kg W.day, and corn stover supplemented with rice bran/copra meal in equal amounts (w/w) at 10 g DM/kg W.day. Each experiment was 10 weeks in duration, consisting of a 2-week preliminary period for adaptation to diets and an 8-week experimental period for the measurement of W change, feed and water intake and digestibility of the diet. Growth rates of 6-12-month-old, entire male Bali cattle fed a range of local diets ranged from 0.10 and 0.40 kg/day. Lowest growth rates occurred when the cattle were given the basal diets of native grass (0.104 kg/day), elephant grass (0.174 kg/day) and corn stover (0.232 kg/day). With the addition of supplements such as rice bran, rice bran/copra meal or gliricidia to these basal diets liveweight gains increased to between 0.225 and 0.402 kg/day. Forage DM intake was reduced with these supplements by on average 22.6% while total DM intake was increased by an average of 10.5%. The growth rate on gliricidia alone was 0.269 kg/day and feed DM intake was 28.0 g/kg W.day. Water intake was not affected by supplement type or intake. In conclusion, inclusion of small quantities of locally available, high quality feed supplements provide small-holder farmers with the potential to increase growth rates of Bali calves from 0.1 to 0.2 kg/day, under prevailing feeding scenarios, to over 0.4 kg/day.

Microclimate and gas emissions in dairy buildings : Instrumentation, theory and measurements

The aim of this thesis was to develop measurement techniques and systems for measuring air quality and to provide information about air quality conditions and the amount of gaseous emissions from semi-insulated and uninsulated dairy buildings in Finland and Estonia. Specialization and intensification in livestock farming, such as in dairy production, is usually accompanied by an increase in concentrated environmental emissions. In addition to high moisture, the presence of dust and corrosive gases, and widely varying gas concentrations in dairy buildings, Finland and Estonia experience winter temperatures reaching below -40 ºC and summer temperatures above +30 ºC. The adaptation of new technologies for long-term air quality monitoring and measurement remains relatively uncommon in dairy buildings because the construction and maintenance of accurate monitoring systems for long-term use are too expensive for the average dairy farmer to afford. Though the documentation of accurate air quality measurement systems intended mainly for research purposes have been made in the past, standardised methods and the documentation of affordable systems and simple methods for performing air quality and emissions measurements in dairy buildings are unavailable. In this study, we built three measurement systems: 1) a Stationary system with integrated affordable sensors for on-site measurements, 2) a Wireless system with affordable sensors for off-site measurements, and 3) a Mobile system consisting of expensive and accurate sensors for measuring air quality. In addition to assessing existing methods, we developed simplified methods for measuring ventilation and emission rates in dairy buildings. The three measurement systems were successfully used to measure air quality in uninsulated, semi-insulated, and fully-insulated dairy buildings between the years 2005 and 2007. When carefully calibrated, the affordable sensors in the systems gave reasonably accurate readings. The spatial air quality survey showed high variation in microclimate conditions in the dairy buildings measured. The average indoor air concentration for carbon dioxide was 950 ppm, for ammonia 5 ppm, for methane 48 ppm, for relative humidity 70%, and for inside air velocity 0.2 m/s. The average winter and summer indoor temperatures during the measurement period were -7º C and +24 ºC for the uninsulated, +3 ºC and +20 ºC for the semi-insulated and +10 ºC and +25 ºC for the fully-insulated dairy buildings. The measurement results showed that the uninsulated dairy buildings had lower indoor gas concentrations and emissions compared to fully insulated buildings. Although occasionally exceeded, the ventilation rates and average indoor air quality in the dairy buildings were largely within recommended limits. We assessed the traditional heat balance, moisture balance, carbon dioxide balance and direct airflow methods for estimating ventilation rates. The direct velocity measurement for the estimation of ventilation rate proved to be impractical for naturally ventilated buildings. Two methods were developed for estimating ventilation rates. The first method is applicable in buildings in which the ventilation can be stopped or completely closed. The second method is useful in naturally ventilated buildings with large openings and high ventilation rates where spatial gas concentrations are heterogeneously distributed. The two traditional methods (carbon dioxide and methane balances), and two newly developed methods (theoretical modelling using Fick s law and boundary layer theory, and the recirculation flux-chamber technique) were used to estimate ammonia emissions from the dairy buildings. Using the traditional carbon dioxide balance method, ammonia emissions per cow from the dairy buildings ranged from 7 g day-1 to 35 g day-1, and methane emissions per cow ranged from 96 g day-1 to 348 g day-1. The developed methods proved to be as equally accurate as the traditional methods. Variation between the mean emissions estimated with the traditional and the developed methods was less than 20%. The developed modelling procedure provided sound framework for examining the impact of production systems on ammonia emissions in dairy buildings.

Applicability of the van der Pauw-Hall measurement technique to implanted samples

The application of the van der Pauw-Hall measurement technique to implanted samples in which the mobility varies with depth has still not been fully justified. A proof that the technique is in fact applicable in this situation is given. Journal of Applied Physics is copyrighted by The American Institute of Physics.

Refractive index measurement by the moire technique

A simple moire method for the direct measurement of refractive indices is presented. The change of magnification and/or distortion of the image of a linear grating when viewed through a refractive index field is amplified by means of moire fringes and is measured directly. Relations between the index of refraction and fringe spacing are derived and have been verified experimentally.

Genetic correlations of young bull reproductive traits and heifer puberty traits with female reproductive performance in two tropical beef genotypes in northern Australia

Genetic correlations of young bull and heifer puberty traits with measures of early and lifetime female reproductive performance were estimated in two tropical beef cattle genotypes. Heifer age at puberty was highly (r(g) = -0.71 +/- 0.11) and moderately (r(g) = -0.40 +/- 0.20) genetically correlated with pregnancy rate at first annual mating (mating 1) and lifetime annual calving rate, respectively in Brahman (BRAH). In Tropical Composite (TCOMP), heifer age at puberty was highly correlated with reproductive outcomes from the first re-breed (mating 2), mainly due to its association with lactation anoestrous interval (r(g) = 0.72 +/- 0.17). Scrotal circumference were correlated with heifer age at puberty (r(g) = -0.41 +/- 0.11 at 12 months in BRAH; -0.30 +/- 0.13 at 6 months in TCOMP) but correlations were lower with later female reproduction traits. Bull insulin-like growth factor-I was correlated with heifer age at puberty (r(g) = -0.56 +/- 0.11 in BRAH; -0.43 +/- 0.11 in TCOMP) and blood luteinising hormone concentration was moderately correlated with lactation anoestrous interval (r(g) = 0.59 +/- 0.23) in TCOMP. Semen quality traits, including mass activity, motility and percent normal sperm were genetically correlated with lactation anoestrus and female lifetime female reproductive traits in both genotypes, but the magnitudes of the relationships differed with bull age at measurement. Preputial eversion and sheath scores were genetically associated with lifetime calving and weaning rates in both genotypes. Several of the early-in-life male and female measures examined were moderately to highly genetically correlated with early and lifetime female reproduction traits and may be useful as indirect selection criteria for improving female reproduction in tropical breeds in northern Australia.