Incremental neural networks for function approximation

A new strategy for incremental building of multilayer feedforward neural networks is proposed in the context of approximation of functions from R-p to R-q using noisy data. A stopping criterion based on the properties of the noise is also proposed. Experimental results for both artificial and real data are performed and two alternatives of the proposed construction strategy are compared.

Between Equity and Differentiation: An Analytical Schema of the Social Function of Education

The educational sphere has an internal function relatively agreed by social scientists. Nonetheless, the contribution that educational systems provide to the society (i.e., their social function) does not have the same degree of consensus. Taking into consideration such theoretical precedent, the current article raises an analytical schema to grasp the social function of education considering a sociological perspective. Starting from the assumption that there is an intrinsic relationship between the internal and social functions of social systems, we suggest there are particular stratification determinants modifying the internal pedagogical function of education, which impact on its social function by creating simultaneous conditions of equity and differentiation. Throughout the paper this social function is considered a paradoxical mechanism. We highlight how this paradoxical dynamic is deployed in different structural levels of the educational sphere. Additionally, we discuss eventual consequences of this paradoxical social function for the inclusion possibilities that educational systems offer to individuals.

Homeostasis and in vivo effector function of antigen-specific CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells in experimental transplantation.

CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) play a critical role in the prevention of autoimmune diseases as well as in the induction and maintenance of dominant tolerance in transplantation models. While their suppressive function has been extensively studied in vitro, their homeostasis and mechanisms of immunoregulation still remain to be clarifi ed in vivo. Using a murine adoptive transfer and skin allograft model, we analysed the expansion, effector function and traffi cking of effector T cells in the presence or absence of donor-specifi c Tregs. Although hyporesponsive to allogeneic and polyclonal stimulation in vitro, transferred Tregs survived and expanded, in response to an allograft in vivo. When co-transferred with naive CD4+CD25- effector T cells, they specifi cally prevented donor but not 3rd party allograft rejection by inhibiting the production of effector cytokines rather than the proliferation of effector T cells in response to alloantigens. The co-transfer of donor-specifi c Tregs did not affect the homing of effector T cells towards the graft draining lymph nodes, but it markedly reduced the infi ltration of the allograft by these pathogenic cells. Furthermore, in recipients where donor-specifi c transplantation tolerance was induced, Tregs preferentially accumulated in the allograft draining lymph nodes and within the grafted skin itself. Taken together, our results suggest that the suppression of graft rejection is an active process that involves the persistent presence of Tregs at the site of antigenic challenge.

Integration of genome-wide association studies with biological knowledge identifies six novel genes related to kidney function.

In conducting genome-wide association studies (GWAS), analytical approaches leveraging biological information may further understanding of the pathophysiology of clinical traits. To discover novel associations with estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), a measure of kidney function, we developed a strategy for integrating prior biological knowledge into the existing GWAS data for eGFR from the CKDGen Consortium. Our strategy focuses on single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs) in genes that are connected by functional evidence, determined by literature mining and gene ontology (GO) hierarchies, to genes near previously validated eGFR associations. It then requires association thresholds consistent with multiple testing, and finally evaluates novel candidates by independent replication. Among the samples of European ancestry, we identified a genome-wide significant SNP in FBXL20 (P = 5.6 × 10(-9)) in meta-analysis of all available data, and additional SNPs at the INHBC, LRP2, PLEKHA1, SLC3A2 and SLC7A6 genes meeting multiple-testing corrected significance for replication and overall P-values of 4.5 × 10(-4)-2.2 × 10(-7). Neither the novel PLEKHA1 nor FBXL20 associations, both further supported by association with eGFR among African Americans and with transcript abundance, would have been implicated by eGFR candidate gene approaches. LRP2, encoding the megalin receptor, was identified through connection with the previously known eGFR gene DAB2 and extends understanding of the megalin system in kidney function. These findings highlight integration of existing genome-wide association data with independent biological knowledge to uncover novel candidate eGFR associations, including candidates lacking known connections to kidney-specific pathways. The strategy may also be applicable to other clinical phenotypes, although more testing will be needed to assess its potential for discovery in general.

Initial Results on the Composition of Fingerprints and its Evolution as a Function of Time by GC/MS Analysis

Determining the time since deposition of fingermarks may prove necessary to assess their relevance to criminal investigations. The crucial factor is the initial composition of fingermarks, because it represents the starting point of any aging model. This study mainly aimed to characterize the initial composition of fingerprints, which show a high variability between donors (inter-variability), but also to investigate the variations among fingerprints from the same donor (intra-variability). Solutions to reduce this initial variability using squalene and cholesterol as target compounds are proposed and should be further investigated. The influence of substrates was also evaluated, and the initial composition was observed to be larger on porous surface than nonporous surfaces. Preliminary aging of fingerprints over 30 days was finally studied on a porous and a nonporous substrate to evaluate the potential for dating of fingermarks. Squalene was observed to decrease in a faster rate on a nonporous substrate.

Notch regulation of lymphocyte development and function.

Notch proteins regulate a broad spectrum of cell fate decisions and differentiation processes during fetal and postnatal development. Mammals have four Notch receptors that bind five different ligands. The function of Notch signaling during lymphopoiesis and T cell neoplasia, based on gain-of-function and conditional loss-of-function approaches for the Notch1 receptor, indicates Notch1 is essential in T cell lineage commitment. Recent studies have addressed the involvement of other Notch receptors and ligands as well as their downstream targets, demonstrating additional functions of Notch signaling in embryonic hematopoiesis, intrathymic T cell development, B cell development and peripheral T cell function.

Monitoring procalcitonin in febrile neutropenia: what is its utility for initial diagnosis of infection and reassessment in persistent Fever?

Background: Management of febrile neutropenic episodes (FE) is challenged by lacking microbiological and clinical documentation of infection. We aimed at evaluating the utility of monitoring blood procalcitonin (PCT) in FE for initial diagnosis of infection and reassessment in persistent fever.Methods: PCT kinetics was prospectively monitored in 194 consecutive FE (1771 blood samples): 65 microbiologically documented infections (MDI, 33.5%; 49 due to non-coagulase-negative staphylococci, non-CNS), 68 clinically documented infections (CDI, 35%; 39 deep-seated), and 61 fever of unexplained origin (FUO, 31.5%).Results: At fever onset median PCT was 190 pg/mL (range 30-26'800), without significant difference among MDI, CDI and FUO. PCT peak occurred on day 2 after onset of fever: non-CNS-MDI/deep-seated-CDI (656, 80-86350) vs. FUO (205, 33-771; p<0.001). PCT >500 pg/mL distinguished non-CNS-MDI/deep-seated-CDI from FUO with 56% sensitivity and 90% specificity. PCT was >500 pg/ml in only 10% of FUO (688, 570-771). A PCT peak >500 pg/mL (1196, 524-11950) occurred beyond 3 days of persistent fever in 17/21 (81%) invasive fungal diseases (IFD). This late PCT peak identified IFD with 81% sensitivity and 57% specificity and preceded diagnosis according to EORTC-MSG criteria in 41% of cases. In IFD responding to therapy, median days to PCT <500 pg/mL and defervescence were 5 (1-23) vs. 10 (3-22; p = 0.026), respectively.Conclusion: While procalcitonin is not useful for diagnosis of infection at onset of neutropenic fever, it may help to distinguish a minority of potentially severe infections among FUOs on day 2 after onset of fever. In persistent fever monitoring procalcitonin contributes to early diagnosis and follow-up of invasive mycoses

Structure and function of a "yellow" protein from saliva of the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis that confers protective immunity against Leishmania major infection.

LJM11, an abundant salivary protein from the sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis, belongs to the insect "yellow" family of proteins. In this study, we immunized mice with 17 plasmids encoding L. longiplapis salivary proteins and demonstrated that LJM11 confers protective immunity against Leishmania major infection. This protection correlates with a strong induction of a delayed type hypersensitivity (DTH) response following exposure to L. longipalpis saliva. Additionally, splenocytes of exposed mice produce IFN-γ upon stimulation with LJM11, demonstrating the systemic induction of Th1 immunity by this protein. In contrast to LJM11, LJM111, another yellow protein from L. longipalpis saliva, does not produce a DTH response in these mice, suggesting that structural or functional features specific to LJM11 are important for the induction of a robust DTH response. To examine these features, we used calorimetric analysis to probe a possible ligand binding function for the salivary yellow proteins. LJM11, LJM111, and LJM17 all acted as high affinity binders of prohemostatic and proinflammatory biogenic amines, particularly serotonin, catecholamines, and histamine. We also determined the crystal structure of LJM11, revealing a six-bladed β-propeller fold with a single ligand binding pocket located in the central part of the propeller structure on one face of the molecule. A hypothetical model of LJM11 suggests a positive electrostatic potential on the face containing entry to the ligand binding pocket, whereas LJM111 is negative to neutral over its entire surface. This may be the reason for differences in antigenicity between the two proteins.

IRF6 is a mediator of the Notch pro-differentiation and tumour suppressive function in keratinocytes

I. Résumé large publicIRF6 est un médiateur de Notch dans la différenciation des kératinocytes et dans sa fonction de suppresseur de tumeursLa peau est l'organe le plus important du corps humain, elle représente chez l'adulte une surface d'environ 1,5 m2 et elle est composée de 2000 milliards de cellules. La peau est composée de plusieurs types cellulaires dont les kératinocvtes. Ces cellules, qui se trouvent dans la couche la plus externe de la peau (Pépiderme), nous protègent de la déshydratation et des agressions externes telles que les infections et rayons ultraviolets. Cette fonction de « barrière » est mise en place grâce à un processus appelé différenciation des kératinocvtes durant lequel les kératinocytes deviennent matures et finalement meurent pour former la couche cornée la plus externe difficilement pénétrable. L'homéostasie tissulaire est un mécanisme qui régule l'équilibre entre prolifération, différentiation et mort cellulaire. Une perturbation de cet équilibre peut mener à la formation d'une tumeur. Il existe différents types de tumeurs de la peau. Nous nous sommes intéressés aux «carcinomes spino-cellulaires» (SCC) qui se développent à partir des keratinocytes en différenciation. Notch est une molécule impliquée positivement dans la différenciation des kératinocytes et joue un rôle prépondérant dans la suppression des tumeurs kératinocytaires comme les SCC dans lesquelles Notch est faiblement exprimé. L'implication de Notch dans la différenciation et dans la carcinogenèse kératinocytaire n'est plus controversée, mais les mécanismes qui sont à la base de ces fonctions restent encore à élucider. IRfF6 est une protéine qui, d'après sa structure, a été classée parmi une famille de régulateurs de la défense de l'organisme (IRFs). Des études ultérieures ont montré qu'IRf 6 n'a pas de rôle dans la réponse immunitaire mais qu'il est plutôt impliqué dans le développement de l'épiderme. Dans ce travail, nous avons établi que, dans les kératinocytes, l'expression d'IPJF6 est contrôlé par Notch et que, comme pour ce dernier, elle est réduite dans les SCCs. De plus, nous avons observé qu'IRF6 régule les mêmes gènes que Notch, et qu'il est en effet un médiateur de la fonction de Notch dans la différenciation des kératinocytes. Parmi les gènes contrôlés par l'axe Notch-IRF6 il y en a trois qui sont sur-exprimés dans les SCCs et qui sont réprimés par cet axe. Il s'agit d'une part d'IRF3 et IRF7, deux autres membres de la famille IRF, et du récepteur EGFR (Epidermal growth factor receptor), un oncogène (un gène impliqué dans l'accélération de la formation de tumeurs). Dans leur ensemble, ces découvertes nous informent sur les mécanismes impliqués dans les fonctions pro-differentiatrice et tumeur suppressive de Notch. Plus encore, elles ouvrent des perspectives intéressantes quant au développement de nouvelles approches thérapeutiques dans le traitement des cancers.II. RésuméLa voie de signalisation de Notch joue un rôle très important dans la différenciation cellulaire et dans la carcinogenèse de nombreux tissus. Dans les kératinocytes, elle agit comme suppresseur de tumeurs, fonction altérée dans les cancers spino cellulaires SCC (tumeurs kératinocytaires) de part la perte d'expression de Notch.Bien que les fonctions pro-différenciatrice et tumeur-suppressive de la voie de signalisation de Notch soient aujourd'hui reconnues, les mécanismes sous-jacents restent à explorer.Dans ce travail, nous montrons qu'IRF6, un membre de la famille des régulateurs de la voie de l'interféron (IRF), ne possédant pas de rôles dans la réponse immunitaire mais essentiel dans le développement de l'épiderme, est d'autant plus exprimé que le kératinocytes sont différenciées alors que son expression est drastiquement diminuée dans les SCC. De façon intéressante, l'expression d'IRF6 durant la différenciation kératinocytaire est directement contrôlée par Notch.Dans les kératinocytes l'expression accrue d'IRP6 a les mêmes effets que 1'activation de la voie de Notch induisant les marqueurs de différentiation des couches supra-basales de l'épiderme et inhibant ceux de la couche basale impliqués dans la prolifération cellulaire. Cependant IRF6 n'est pas impliqué dans la régulation d'autres cibles de Notch, comme p21WAFI/CiP' et Hesl. Comme Notch, IRF6 contrôle négativement l'expression de EGFR et IRF3/7. De ce fait EGFR et IRF3 et IRF7 sont fortement exprimés dans les SCCs humaines où l'expression de Notch et IRF6 est fortement réduite.En conclusion, nous avons démontré qu'IRF6 est une cible directe de Notch/CSL dans les keratinocytes qui medie les effets "non-canonique" de cette voie de signalisation dans la différentiation et dans la suppression tumorale.III. SummaryThe Notch pathway is an important regulator of differentiation and carcinogenesis. In keratinocytes it acts as tumour suppressor and the Notch gene is markedly reduced in keratinocyte-derived squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). While the pro-differentiation and tumour suppressive functions of Notch signalling in keratinocytes are well established, the underlying mechanisms are still poorly understood, We report here that Interferon Regulatory Factor 6 (IRF6), an IRF family member with an essential role in epidermal development, is downmodulated in SCC and is induced in differentiating cells. We observed that the induction of IRF6 in differentiating keratinocytes is suppressed by Notch inhibition. IRF6 expression is also decreased in mice with keratinocyte-specific deletion of the Notch 1/2.Moreover we show that the expression of this gene is induced by Notch activation through a CSL-dependent mechanism even under conditions of protein synthesis inhibition, with endogenous Notch 1 binding to the IRF6 promoter.Increased IRJF6 expression is necessary for the impact of Notch activation on differentiation markers K1 and Involucrin, and proliferation markers integrins and p63, but not on other "canonical" Notch targets like p21WAF1/Cipl, Hes1 and Hey1. Like Notch 1, IRF6 down-modulates expression of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) as well as two other IRF family members, IRF3 and 7, which we previously linked to positive control of p63 expression. Expression of IRF3, IRF7 and EGFR is enhanced in cutaneous squamous cell carcinomas, illustrating a strikingly opposite pattern compared to Notch and IRF6.Thus, IRF6 is a primary Notch target in keratinocytes, which mediates the effects of this pathway on differentiation and contributes to tumor suppression.

Role of lipase in the regulation of upper gastrointestinal function in humans.

The role of lipase in the regulation of upper gastrointestinal function is poorly understood. We studied the effect of orlistat, a new, potent, and highly specific lipase inhibitor, on gastric emptying, cholecystokinin (CCK) release, and pancreaticobiliary secretion. Three groups of studies were performed in nine healthy volunteers, using the double-indicator technique with a triple-lumen duodenal tube, polyethylene glycol 4000 as a duodenal perfusion marker, and 99mTc-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid as a meal marker. Gastric emptying, pancreaticobiliary output, and postprandial plasma CCK levels were measured after ingestion of the following isocaloric 500-ml liquid meals with or without 200 mg orlistat: 1) a pure fat meal (10% Intralipid), 2) a meal containing free fatty acids, or 3) an albumin-glucose meal. All experiments were performed in a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover design. Orlistat markedly inhibited lipase activity in all three experiments. Orlistat given with the fat meal reduced CCK release and output of lipase, trypsin, and bilirubin and accelerated the rate of gastric emptying (P < 0.05). After ingestion of the free fatty acid or albumin-glucose meal, orlistat had no significant effect on any of these parameters. We conclude that lipase plays an important, nutrient-specific role in the regulation of gastric emptying and pancreaticobiliary secretion after ingestion of fatty meals in humans.

BAFF, APRIL and their receptors: structure, function and signaling.

BAFF, APRIL and their receptors play important immunological roles, especially in the B cell arm of the immune system. A number of splice isoforms have been described for both ligands and receptors in this subfamily, some of which are conserved between mouse and human, while others are species-specific. Structural and mutational analyses have revealed key determinants of receptor-ligand specificity. BAFF-R has a strong selectivity for BAFF; BCMA has a higher affinity for APRIL than for BAFF, while TACI binds both ligands equally well. The molecular signaling events downstream of BAFF-R, BCMA and TACI are still incompletely characterized. Survival appears to be mediated by upregulation of Bcl-2 family members through NF-kappaB activation, degradation of the pro-apototic Bim protein, and control of subcellular localization of PCKdelta. Very little is known about other signaling events associated with receptor engagement by BAFF and APRIL that lead for example to B cell activation or to CD40L-independent Ig switch.

Resolving the ortholog conjecture: orthologs tend to be weakly, but significantly, more similar in function than paralogs.

The function of most proteins is not determined experimentally, but is extrapolated from homologs. According to the "ortholog conjecture", or standard model of phylogenomics, protein function changes rapidly after duplication, leading to paralogs with different functions, while orthologs retain the ancestral function. We report here that a comparison of experimentally supported functional annotations among homologs from 13 genomes mostly supports this model. We show that to analyze GO annotation effectively, several confounding factors need to be controlled: authorship bias, variation of GO term frequency among species, variation of background similarity among species pairs, and propagated annotation bias. After controlling for these biases, we observe that orthologs have generally more similar functional annotations than paralogs. This is especially strong for sub-cellular localization. We observe only a weak decrease in functional similarity with increasing sequence divergence. These findings hold over a large diversity of species; notably orthologs from model organisms such as E. coli, yeast or mouse have conserved function with human proteins.

Labor market heterogeneity and the aggregate matching function

The matching function -a key building block in models of labor market frictions- impliesthat the job finding rate depends only on labor market tightness. We estimate such amatching function and find that the relation, although remarkably stable over 1967-2007,broke down spectacularly after 2007. We argue that labor market heterogeneities are notfully captured by the standard matching function, but that a generalized matching functionthat explicitly takes into account worker heterogeneity and market segmentation is fullyconsistent with the behavior of the job finding rate. The standard matching function canbreak down when, as in the Great Recession, the average characteristics of the unemployedchange too much, or when dispersion in labor market conditions -the extent to which somelabor markets fare worse than others- increases too much.