Active Surface Deformation Technology for Management of Marine Biofouling

Biofouling, the accumulation of biomolecules, cells, organisms and their deposits on submerged and implanted surfaces, is a ubiquitous problem across various human endeavors including maritime operations, medicine, food industries and biotechnology. Since several decades, there have been substantial research efforts towards developing various types of antifouling and fouling release approaches to control bioaccumulation on man-made surfaces. In this work we hypothesized, investigated and developed dynamic change of the surface area and topology of elastomers as a general approach for biofouling management. Further, we combined dynamic surface deformation of elastomers with other existing antifouling and fouling-release approaches to develop multifunctional, pro-active biofouling control strategies.

This research work was focused on developing fundamental, new and environment-friendly approaches for biofouling management with emphasis on marine model systems and applications, but which also provided fundamental insights into the control of infectious biofilms on biomedical devices. We used different methods (mechanical stretching, electrical-actuation and pneumatic-actuation) to generate dynamic deformation of elastomer surfaces. Our initial studies showed that dynamic surface deformation methods are effective in detaching laboratory grown bacterial biofilms and barnacles. Further systematic studies revealed that a threshold critical surface strain is required to debond a biofilm from the surface, and this critical strain is dependent on the biofilm mechanical properties including adhesion energy, thickness and modulus. To test the dynamic surface deformation approach in natural environment, we conducted field studies (at Beaufort, NC) in natural seawater using pneumatic-actuation of silicone elastomer. The field studies also confirmed that a critical substrate strain is needed to detach natural biofilm accumulated in seawater. Additionally, the results from the field studies suggested that substrate modulus also affect the critical strain needed to debond biofilms. To sum up, both the laboratory and the field studies proved that dynamic surface deformation approach can effectively detach various biofilms and barnacles, and therefore offers a non-toxic and environmental friendly approach for biofouling management.

Deformable elastomer systems used in our studies are easy to fabricate and can be used as complementary approach for existing commercial strategies for biofouling control. To this end, we aimed towards developed proactive multifunctional surfaces and proposed two different approaches: (i) modification of elastomers with antifouling polymers to produce multifunctional, and (ii) incorporation of silicone-oil additives into the elastomer to enhance fouling-release performance.

In approach (i), we modified poly(vinylmethylsiloxane) elastomer surfaces with zwitterionic polymers using thiol-ene click chemistry and controlled free radical polymerization. These surfaces exhibited both fouling resistance and triggered fouling-release functionalities. The zwitterionic polymers exhibited fouling resistance over short-term (∼hours) exposure to bacteria and barnacle cyprids. The biofilms that eventually accumulated over prolonged-exposure (∼days) were easily detached by applying mechanical strain to the elastomer substrate. In approach (ii), we incorporated silicone-oil additives in deformable elastomer and studied synergistic effect of silicone-oils and surface strain on barnacle detachment. We hypothesized that incorporation of silicone-oil additive reduces the amount of surface strain needed to detach barnacles. Our experimental results supported the above hypothesis and suggested that surface-action of silicone-oils plays a major role in decreasing the strain needed to detach barnacles. Further, we also examined the effect of change in substrate modulus and showed that stiffer substrates require lower amount of strain to detach barnacles.

In summary, this study shows that (1) dynamic surface deformation can be used as an effective, environmental friendly approach for biofouling control (2) stretchable elastomer surfaces modified with anti-fouling polymers provides a pro-active, dual-mode approach for biofouling control, and (3) incorporation of silicone-oils additives into stretchable elastomers improves the fouling-release performance of dynamic surface deformation technology. Dynamic surface deformation by itself and as a supplementary approach can be utilized biofouling management in biomedical, industrial and marine applications.

The effects of formulation and processing on surface characteristics and functional properties of dairy powders

The objectives of this thesis were to (i) study the effect of increasing protein concentration in milk protein concentrate (MPC) powders on surface composition and sorption properties; (ii) examine the effect of increasing protein content on the rehydration properties of MPC; (iii) study the physicochemical properties of spraydried emulsion-containing powders having different water and oil contents; (iv) analyse the effect of protein type on water sorption and diffusivity properties in a protein/lactose dispersion, and; (v) characterise lactose crystallisation and emulsion stability of model infant formula containing intact or hydrolysed whey proteins. Surface composition of MPC powders (protein contents 35 - 86 g / 100 g) indicated that fat and protein were preferentially located on the surface of powders. Low protein powder (35 g / 100 g) exhibited lactose crystallisation, whereas powders with higher protein contents did not, due to their high protein: lactose ratio. Insolubility was evident in high protein MPCs and was primarily related to insolubility of the casein fraction. High temperature (50 °C) was required for dissolution of high protein MPCs (protein content > 60 g / 100 g). The effect of different oil types and spray-drying outlet temperature on the physicochemical properties of the resultant fat-filled powders was investigated and showed that increasing outlet temperature reduced water content, water activity and tapped bulk density, irrespective of oil type, and increased solvent-extractable free fat for all oil types and onset of glass transition (Tg) and crystallisation (Tcr) temperature. Powder dispersions of protein/lactose (0.21:1), containing either intact or hydrolysed whey protein (12 % degree of hydrolysis; DH), were spray-dried at pilot scale. Moisture sorption analysis at 25 °C showed that dispersions containing intact whey protein exhibited lactose crystallisation at a lower relative humidity (RH). Dispersions containing hydrolysed whey protein had significantly higher (P < 0.05) water diffusivity. Finally, a spray-dried model infant formula was produced containing hydrolysed or intact whey as the protein with sunflower oil as the fat source. Reconstituted, hydrolysed formula had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher fat globule size and lower emulsion stability than intact formula. Lactose crystallisation in powders occurred at higher RH for hydrolysed formula. In conclusion, this research has shown the effect of altering the protein type, protein composition, and oil type on the surface composition and physical properties of different dairy powders, and how these variations greatly affect their rehydration characteristics and storage stability.

Novel surface-tethered estrogen polymeric platforms in cardiovascular regenerative medicine

L’estradiol (E2) est une hormone femelle qui joue un rôle essentiel, à la fois dans la régulation et dans la détermination de certaines conditions physiologiques in vivo, telle que la différenciation et la prolifération cellulaire. Lorsque l’E2 est donné en supplément, par exemple dans le cas de thérapie hormonale, deux effets sont observés, un effet génomique et un effet non-génomique, de par son interaction avec les récepteurs à œstrogène du noyau ou de la membrane cellulaire, respectivement. L’effet non-génomique est plus difficile à étudier biologiquement parce que l’effet se produit sur une échelle de temps extrêmement courte et à cause de la nature hydrophobe de l’E2 qui réduit sa biodisponibilité et donc son accessibilité aux cellules cibles. C’est pourquoi il est nécessaire de développer des systèmes d’administration de l’E2 qui permettent de n’étudier que l’effet non-génomique de l’œstrogène. Une des stratégies employée consiste à greffer l’E2 à des macromolécules hydrophiles, comme de l’albumine de sérum bovin (BSA) ou des dendrimères de type poly(amido)amine, permettant de maintenir l’interaction de l’E2 avec les récepteurs d’œstrogène de la membrane cellulaire et d’éviter la pénétration de l’E2 dans le noyau des cellules. Toutefois, ces systèmes macromolécules-E2 sont critiquables car ils sont peu stables et l’E2 peut se retrouver sous forme libre, ce qui affecte sa localisation cellulaire. L’objectif de cette thèse est donc de développer de nouvelles plateformes fonctionnalisées avec de l’E2 en utilisant les approches de synthèses ascendantes et descendantes. Le but de ces plateformes est de permettre d’étudier le mécanisme de l’effet non-génomique de l’E2, ainsi que d’explorer des applications potentielles dans le domaine biomédical. L’approche ascendante est basée sur un ligand d’E2 activé, l’acide 17,α-éthinylestradiol-benzoïque, attaché de façon covalente à un polymère de chitosan avec des substitutions de phosphorylcholine (CH-PC-E2). L’estradiol est sous forme de pro-drogue attachée au polymère qui s’auto-assembler pour former un film. L’effet biologique de la composition chimique du film de chitosan-phosphorylcholine a été étudié sur des cellules endothéliales. Les films de compositions chimiques différentes ont préalablement été caractérisés de façon physicochimique. La topographie de la surface, la charge de surface, ainsi que la rhéologie des différents films contenant 15, 25, ou 40% molaires de phosphorylcholine, ont été étudiés par microscopie à force atomique (AFM), potentiel zêta, résonance plasmonique de surface et par microbalance à cristal de quartz avec dissipation (QCM-D). Les résultats de QCM-D ont montré que plus la part molaire en phosphorylcholine est grande moins il y a de fibrinogène qui s’adsorbe sur le film de CH-PC. Des cellules humaines de veine ombilicale (HUVECs) cultivées sur des films de CH-PC25 et de CH-PC40 forment des amas cellulaire appelés sphéroïdes au bout de 4 jours, alors que ce n’est pas le cas lorsque ces cellules sont cultivées sur des films de CH-PC15. L’attachement de l’estradiol au polymère a été caractérisé par plusieurs techniques, telles que la résonance magnétique nucléaire de proton (1H NMR), la spectroscopie infrarouge avec transformée de Fourier à réfraction totale atténuée (FTIR-ATR) et la spectroscopie UV-visible. La nature hydrogel des films (sa capacité à retenir l’eau) ainsi que l’interaction des films avec des récepteurs à E2, ont été étudiés par la QCM-D. Des études d’imagerie cellulaires utilisant du diacétate de diaminofluoresceine-FM ont révélé que les films hydrogels de CH-PC-E2 stimulent la production d’oxyde nitrique par les cellules endothéliales, qui joue un rôle protecteur pour le système cardiovasculaire. L’ensemble de ces études met en valeur les rôles différents et les applications potentielles qu’ont les films de type CH-PC-E2 et CH-PC dans le cadre de la médecine cardiovasculaire régénérative. L’approche descendante est basée sur l’attachement de façon covalente d’E2 sur des ilots d’or de 2 μm disposés en rangées et espacés par 12 μm sur un substrat en verre. Les ilots ont été préparés par photolithographie. La surface du verre a quant à elle été modifiée à l’aide d’un tripeptide cyclique, le cRGD, favorisant l’adhésion cellulaire. L’attachement d’E2 sur les surfaces d’or a été suivi et confirmé par les techniques de SPR et de QCM-D. Des études d’ELISA ont montré une augmentation significative du niveau de phosphorylation de la kinase ERK (marqueur important de l’effet non-génomique) après 1 heure d’exposition des cellules endothéliales aux motifs alternant l’E2 et le cRGD. Par contre lorsque des cellules cancéreuses sont déposées sur les surfaces présentant des motifs d’E2, ces cellules ne croissent pas, ce qui suggère que l’E2 n’exerce pas d’effet génomique. Les résultats de l’approche descendante montrent le potentiel des surfaces présentant des motifs d’E2 pour l’étude des effets non-génomiques de l’E2 dans un modèle in vitro.

Biomarker distributions in surface sediments from the Central Arctic Ocean and adjacent marginal seas

Records of the spatial and temporal variability of Arctic Ocean sea ice are of significance for understanding the causes of the dramatic decrease in Arctic sea-ice cover of recent years. In this context, the newly developed sea-ice proxy IP25, a mono-unsaturated highly branched isoprenoid alkene with 25 carbon atoms biosynthesized specifically by sea-ice associated diatoms and only found in Arctic and sub-Arctic marine sediments, has been used to reconstruct the recent spatial sea-ice distribution. The phytoplankton biomarkers 24S-brassicasterol and dinosterol were determined alongside IP25 to distinguish ice-free or permanent ice conditions, and to estimate the sea-ice conditions semi-quantitatively by means of the phytoplankton-IP25 index (PIP25). Within our study, for the first time a comprehensive data set of these biomarkers was produced using fresh and deep-frozen surface sediment samples from the Central Arctic Ocean proper (>80°N latitude) characterised by a permanent ice cover today and recently obtained surface sediment samples from the Chukchi Plateau/Basin partly covered by perennial sea ice. In addition, published and new data from other Arctic and sub-Arctic regions were added to generate overview distribution maps of IP25 and phytoplankton biomarkers across major parts of the modern Arctic Ocean. These comprehensive biomarker data indicate perennial sea-ice cover in the Central Arctic, ice-free conditions in the Barents Sea and variable sea-ice situations in other marginal seas. The low but more than zero values of biomarkers in the Central Arctic supported the low in-situ productivity there. The PIP25 index values reflect modern sea-ice conditions better than IP25 alone and show a positive correlation with spring/summer sea ice. When calculating and interpreting PIP25 index as a (semi-quantitative) proxy for reconstructions of present and past Arctic sea-ice conditions from different Arctic/sub-Arctic areas, information of the source of phytoplankton biomarkers and the possible presence of allochthonous biomarkers is needed, and the records of the individual biomarkers always should be considered as well.

Grain-size analysis of surface sediments, continental margin off NW Africa

The terrigenous fraction of seabed sediments recovered along the north-west African continental margin illustrates spatial variability in grain size attributed to different transport mechanisms. Three subpopulations are determined from the grain-size analyses (n = 78) of the carbonate-free silt fraction applying an end-member modelling algorithm (G. J. Weltje, 1997). The two coarsest end-members are interpreted as representing aeolian dust, and the fine-grained end-member is related to fluvial supply. The end-member model thus allows aeolian fallout to be distinguished from fluvial-sourced mud in this area. The relative contributions of the end-members show distinct regional variations that can be related to different transport processes and pathways. Understanding present-day sediment dispersal and mixing is important for a better understanding of older sedimentary records and palaeoclimate reconstructions in the region.

The organic sea-surface microlayer in the upwelling region off the coast of Peru and potential implications for air-sea exchange processes

The sea-surface microlayer (SML) is at the upper- most surface of the ocean, linking the hydrosphere with the atmosphere. The presence and enrichment of organic compounds in the SML have been suggested to influence air- sea gas exchange processes as well as the emission of primary organic aerosols. Here, we report on organic matter components collected from an approximately 50µm thick SML and from the underlying water (ULW), ca. 20 cm below the SML, in December 2012 during the SOPRAN METEOR 91 cruise to the highly productive, coastal upwelling regime off the coast of Peru. Samples were collected at 37 stations including coastal upwelling sites and off-shore stations with less organic matter and were analyzed for total and dissolved high molecular weight (> 1 kDa) combined carbohydrates (TCCHO, DCCHO), free amino acids (FAA), total and dissolved hydrolyzable amino acids (THAA, DHAA), transparent exopolymer particles (TEP), Coomassie stainable particles (CSPs), total and dissolved organic carbon (TOC, DOC), total and dissolved nitrogen (TN, TDN), as well as bacterial and phytoplankton abundance. Our results showed a close coupling between organic matter concentrations in the water column and in the SML for almost all components except for FAA and DHAA that showed highest enrichment in the SML on average. Accumulation of gel particles (i.e., TEP and CSP) in the SML differed spatially. While CSP abundance in the SML was not related to wind speed, TEP abundance decreased with wind speed, leading to a depletion of TEP in the SML at about 5 m s-1 . Our study provides insight to the physical and biological control of organic matter enrichment in the SML, and discusses the potential role of organic matter in the SML for air-sea exchange processes.

Benthos activity, abundance and biomass in surface sediments off Morocco, Northwest Africa

Macro- and meiobenthic abundance and biomass as well as metabolic activity (respiration, ETS activity) have been studied along a transect ranging from 130 to 3000 m water depth off northern Morocco (35° N) during "Meteor" cruise No. 53 (1980). The distribution of chloroplastic pigment concentration (chlorophyll a, pheophytins) in the sediment has been investigated as a measure of sedimented primary organic matter. High chloroplastic pigment concentrations were found on the shelf and around the shelf break, but values declined rapidly between 200 and 600 m depth. Below 1200 m pigment concentrations remained at a relatively uniform low level. Macrobenthic abundance and biomass (wet weight) decreased with increasing water depth and with distance from the shore. Significant changes occurred between the shelf and upper slope and below 2000 m depth. Meiobenthic abundance and biomass (ash free dry weight) followed the same general pattern, but changes were found below 400 and 800 m depth. In the depth range of 1200 to 3000 m values differ only slightly. Meiofauna abundance and biomass show a good correlation with the sedimentary chloroplastic pigment concentrations. Respiratory activity of sediment cores, measured by a shipboard technique at ambient temperatures, decreased with water depth and shows a good correlation with the pigment concentrations. ETS activity was highest on the shelf and decreased with water depth, with significant changes between 200 and 400 m, and below 1200 m depth, respectively. Activity was generally highest in the top 5 cm of the sediment and was measurable, at all stations, down to 15 cm sediment depth. Shelf and upper slope stations exhibited a vertical distribution pattern of ETS activity in the sediment column, different from that of deeper stations. The importance of biological activity measurements as an estimate of productivity is discussed. To prove the thesis that differences in benthic abundance, biomass and activity reflect differences in pelagic surface primary production, in the case of the NW-African coast caused by different upwelling intensities, the values from 35° N were compared with data from 21° N (permanent upwelling activity) and 17° N (ca. 9 months upwelling per year). On the shelf and upper slope (< 500 m) hydrographical conditions (currents, internal waves) influence the deposition of organic matter and cause a biomass minimum between 200 and 400 m depth in some regions. But, in general, macrobenthic abundance and biomass increases with enhanced upwelling activity and reaches a maximum in the area off Cape Blanc (21° N). On the shelf and in the shelf break region meiofauna densities are higher at 35° N in comparison to 21° N; but in contrast to the decreasing meiofauna abundance with increasing water depth at 35° N, an abundance maximum between 400 and 1200 m depth is formed in the Cape Blanc region; this maximum coincides with the maximum of sedimentary chloroplastic pigment equivalents. The comparison of ETS activities between 35° N and 21° N shows on the shelf activity at 21° N is up to 14 times higher and on the slope 4-9 times higher, which demonstrates that benthic activity responds to the surface productivity regime.

The distribution of meiofauna in surface sediments of the Fladen Ground, North Sea

A general study of structure, biomass, and dynamic estimates on meiofauna was carried out during PREFLEX (1975) and FLEX (1976), in 117- 141 m water depth. On the basis of these data an attempt was made to estimate meiofauna production, and this is discussed in relation to the energy input from the spring phytoplankton bloom. Sampling was performed at five stations, but only the stations 1, 4, and 5 were covered by a complete series from August 1975 to July 1976. At each station, from four replicate box core samples, two were withdrawn to study the abundance, distribution, and biomass of meiofauna, the content of chloroplastic pigment equivalents (CPE), and chemical and grain size analyses. At all stations grain size fell in the range of fine sand having median diameters (MD) of < 125 µm. From station 1 to 5 an increase in MD was observed. Highest values of CPE (7.81 µg m l**-1) and organic matter (4.7 %) were obtained in June and July (1976)/ August (1975), respectively. Meiofauna abundance was fairly uniform at all stations examined. Station 1 displayed maximal numbers during the whole investigation period. The abundance per 100 cm**2 varied between 15,550 and 34,900 organisms. All meiofauna studied both in total and as separate taxa showed annual cycles of abundance. Low abundance values were recorded during early summer, and maximum values during winter. High numbers of Foraminifera were obtained for August 1975 (9,460 per 100 cm**2) and July 1976 (9,710 per 100 cm**2). From December to June the values decreased from 3,280 to 1,030 per 100 cm**2. At station 1 maximum values of meiofauna biomass were recorded ranging from 1.5 to 2.7 g DWT m**-2. The mean meiofauna dry weight amounted to 2.1 g DWT m**-2. Based on minimum production, the P/B ratio for the area of station 1 might have a mean of 1.4. Taking into consideration generation times we believe that a turnover ratio of 2 is a conservative value for the Fladen Ground meiofauna. The annual production would amount to 4.2 g DWT m**-2 yr**-1. This is 27.5 % of the energy supply during the spring phytoplankton bloom, which is channelled into the meiofauna. The hypothesis is put forward that the energetic strategy of deep offshore meiofauna differs distinctively from that of shallow inshore meiofauna. While the shallow inshore meiofauna show a relatively fast response to organic matter input, the deep offshore meiofauna reacts much more slowly, the food energy consumption seems to be spread out over a longer period.

Design of Transparent Conducting Electrodes and Surface Relief Gratings for Plasmonic Polymer Solar Cells

As the concept of renewable energy becomes increasingly important in the modern society, a considerable amount of research has been conducted in the field of organic photovoltaics in recent years. Although organic solar cells generally have had lower efficiencies compared to silicon solar cells, they have the potential to be mass produced via solution processing. A common polymer solar cell architecture relies on the usage of P3HT (electron donor) and PCBM (electron acceptor) bulk heterojunction. One of the main issues with this configuration is that in order to compensate for the high exciton recombination rate, the photoactive layer is often made very thin (on the order of 100 $%). This results in low solar cell photocurrents due to low absorption. This thesis investigates a novel method of light trapping by coupling surface plasmons at the electrode interface via surface relief gratings, leading to EM field enhancements and increased photo absorption. Experimental work was first conducted on developing and optimizing a transparent electrode of the form &'()/+,/&'() to replace the traditional ITO electrode since the azopolymer gratings cannot withstand the high temperature processing of ITO films. It was determined that given the right thickness profiles and deposition conditions, the MAM stack can achieve transmittance and conductivity similar to ITO films. Experimental work was also conducted on the fabrication and characterization of surface relief gratings, as well as verification of the surface plasmon generation. Surface relief gratings were fabricated easily and accurately via laser interference lithography on photosensitive azopolymer films. Laser diffraction studies confirmed the grating pitch, which is dependent on the incident angle and wavelength of the writing beam. AFM experiments were conducted to determine the surface morphology of the gratings, before and after metallic film deposition. It was concluded that metallic film deposition does not significantly alter the grating morphologies.

Design of Transparent Conducting Electrodes and Surface Relief Gratings for Plasmonic Polymer Solar Cells

As the concept of renewable energy becomes increasingly important in the modern society, a considerable amount of research has been conducted in the field of organic photovoltaics in recent years. Although organic solar cells generally have had lower efficiencies compared to silicon solar cells, they have the potential to be mass produced via solution processing. A common polymer solar cell architecture relies on the usage of P3HT (electron donor) and PCBM (electron acceptor) bulk heterojunction. One of the main issues with this configuration is that in order to compensate for the high exciton recombination rate, the photoactive layer is often made very thin (on the order of 100 $%). This results in low solar cell photocurrents due to low absorption. This thesis investigates a novel method of light trapping by coupling surface plasmons at the electrode interface via surface relief gratings, leading to EM field enhancements and increased photo absorption. Experimental work was first conducted on developing and optimizing a transparent electrode of the form &'()/+,/&'() to replace the traditional ITO electrode since the azopolymer gratings cannot withstand the high temperature processing of ITO films. It was determined that given the right thickness profiles and deposition conditions, the MAM stack can achieve transmittance and conductivity similar to ITO films. Experimental work was also conducted on the fabrication and characterization of surface relief gratings, as well as verification of the surface plasmon generation. Surface relief gratings were fabricated easily and accurately via laser interference lithography on photosensitive azopolymer films. Laser diffraction studies confirmed the grating pitch, which is dependent on the incident angle and wavelength of the writing beam. AFM experiments were conducted to determine the surface morphology of the gratings, before and after metallic film deposition. It was concluded that metallic film deposition does not significantly alter the grating morphologies.

Feature recognition & tool path generation for 5 axis step-nc machining of free form / irregular contoured surfaces

This research paper presents a five step algorithm to generate tool paths for machining Free form / Irregular Contoured Surface(s) (FICS) by adopting STEP-NC (AP-238) format. In the first step, a parametrized CAD model with FICS is created or imported in UG-NX6.0 CAD package. The second step recognizes the features and calculates a Closeness Index (CI) by comparing them with the B-Splines / Bezier surfaces. The third step utilizes the CI and extracts the necessary data to formulate the blending functions for identified features. In the fourth step Z-level 5 axis tool paths are generated by adopting flat and ball end mill cutters. Finally, in the fifth step, tool paths are integrated with STEP-NC format and validated. All these steps are discussed and explained through a validated industrial component.

Integration of cad/ tool path data for 5-axis step-nc machining of free form / irrregular contoured surfaces

This research paper presents the work on feature recognition, tool path data generation and integration with STEP-NC (AP-238 format) for features having Free form / Irregular Contoured Surface(s) (FICS). Initially, the FICS features are modelled / imported in UG CAD package and a closeness index is generated. This is done by comparing the FICS features with basic B-Splines / Bezier curves / surfaces. Then blending functions are caculated by adopting convolution theorem. Based on the blending functions, contour offsett tool paths are generated and simulated for 5 axis milling environment. Finally, the tool path (CL) data is integrated with STEP-NC (AP-238) format. The tool path algorithm and STEP- NC data is tested with various industrial parts through an automated UFUNC plugin.

Free-stretch-blow Investigation of Poly(ethylene terephthalate) over a Large Process Window

This paper highlights for the first time a full comprehension of the deformation procedure during the injection stretch blow moulding (ISBM) process of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) containers, namely thin-walled rigid bottles. The processes required to form PET bottles are complicated and extensive; any development in understanding the nature of material deformation can potentially improve the bottle optimisation process. Removing the bottle mould and performing free-stretch-blow (FSB) experiments revealed insight into the bottle forming characteristics at various preform temperatures and blowing rates. Process outputs cavity pressure and stretch-rod force were recorded using at instrumented stretch-rod and preform surface strain mapping was determined using a combination of a unique patterning procedure and high speed stereoscopic digital image correlation. The unprecedented experimental analysis reveals that the deformation behaviour varies considerably with contrasting process input parameters. Investigation into the effect on deformation mode, strain rate and final bottle shape provide a basis for full understanding of the process optimisation and therefore how the process inputs may aid development of the preferred optimised container.