Seawater carbonate chemistry and larval development and settlement of the sea urchin Arbacia lixula in a laboratory experiment

We studied the effects of temperature and pH on larval development, settlement and juvenile survival of a Mediterranean population of the sea urchin Arbacia lixula. Three temperatures (16, 17.5 and 19 °C) were tested at present pH conditions (pHT 8.1). At 19 °C, two pH levels were compared to reflect present average (pHT 8.1) and near-future average conditions (pHT 7.7, expected by 2100). Larvae were reared for 52-days to achieve the full larval development and complete the metamorphosis to the settler stage. We analyzed larval survival, growth, morphology and settlement success. We also tested the carry-over effect of acidification on juvenile survival after 3 days. Our results showed that larval survival and size significantly increased with temperature. Acidification resulted in higher survival rates and developmental delay. Larval morphology was significantly altered by low temperatures, which led to narrower larvae with relatively shorter skeletal rods, but larval morphology was only marginally affected by acidification. No carry-over effects between larvae and juveniles were detected in early settler survival, though settlers from larvae reared at pH 7.7 were significantly smaller than their counterparts developed at pH 8.1. These results suggest an overall positive effect of environmental parameters related to global change on the reproduction of A. lixula, and reinforce the concerns about the increasing negative impact on shallow Mediterranean ecosystems of this post-glacial colonizer.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and resource allocation and extracellular acid-base status in the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis during experiments, 2012

Anthropogenic CO2 emission will lead to an increase in seawater pCO2 of up to 80-100 Pa (800-1000 µatm) within this century and to an acidification of the oceans. Green sea urchins (Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis) occurring in Kattegat experience seasonal hypercapnic and hypoxic conditions already today. Thus, anthropogenic CO2 emissions will add up to existing values and will lead to even higher pCO2 values >200 Pa (>2000 µatm). To estimate the green sea urchins' potential to acclimate to acidified seawater, we calculated an energy budget and determined the extracellular acid base status of adult S. droebachiensis exposed to moderately (102 to 145 Pa, 1007 to 1431 µatm) and highly (284 to 385 Pa, 2800 to 3800 µatm) elevated seawater pCO2 for 10 and 45 days. A 45 - day exposure to elevated pCO2 resulted in a shift in energy budgets, leading to reduced somatic and reproductive growth. Metabolic rates were not significantly affected, but ammonium excretion increased in response to elevated pCO2. This led to decreased O:N ratios. These findings suggest that protein metabolism is possibly enhanced under elevated pCO2 in order to support ion homeostasis by increasing net acid extrusion. The perivisceral coelomic fluid acid-base status revealed that S. droebachiensis is able to fully (intermediate pCO2) or partially (high pCO2) compensate extracellular pH (pHe) changes by accumulation of bicarbonate (maximum increases 2.5 mM), albeit at a slower rate than typically observed in other taxa (10 day duration for full pHe compensation). At intermediate pCO2, sea urchins were able to maintain fully compensated pHe for 45 days. Sea urchins from the higher pCO2 treatment could be divided into two groups following medium-term acclimation: one group of experimental animals (29%) contained remnants of food in their digestive system and maintained partially compensated pHe (+2.3 mM HCO3), while the other group (71%) exhibited an empty digestive system and a severe metabolic acidosis (-0.5 pH units, -2.4 mM HCO3). There was no difference in mortality between the three pCO2 treatments. The results of this study suggest that S. droebachiensis occurring in the Kattegat might be pre-adapted to hypercapnia due to natural variability in pCO2 in its habitat. We show for the first time that some echinoderm species can actively compensate extracellular pH. Seawater pCO2 values of >200 Pa, which will occur in the Kattegat within this century during seasonal hypoxic events, can possibly only be endured for a short time period of a few weeks. Increases in anthropogenic CO2 emissions and leakages from potential sub-seabed CO2 storage (CCS) sites thus impose a threat to the ecologically and economically important species S. droebachiensis.

Acid-base regulation in the Dungeness crab (Metacarcinus magister)

Homeostatic regulation allows organisms to secure basic physiological processes in a varying environment. To counteract fluctuations in ambient carbonate system speciation due to elevated seawater pCO2 (hypercapnia), many aquatic crustaceans excrete/accumulate acid-base equivalents through their gills; however, not much is known about the role of ammonia in this response. The present study investigated the effects of hypercapnia on acid-base and ammonia regulation in the Dungeness crab, Metacarcinus magister on the whole animal and isolated gill levels. Hemolymph pCO2 and [HCO3]- increased in M. magister acclimated to elevated pCO2 (330 Pa), while pH remained stable. Additionally, hemolymph [Na+], [Ca2+], and [SO4]2- were significantly increased. When challenged with varying pH during gill perfusion, the pH of the artificial hemolymph remained relatively unchanged. Overall, ammonia production and excretion, as well as oxygen consumption, were reduced in crabs acclimated to elevated pCO2, demonstrating that either (amino acid) oxidation is reduced in response to this particular stress, or nitrogenous wastes are excreted in an alternative form.

Photophysiological responses of Southern Ocean phytoplankton to changes in CO2 concentrations: Short-term versus acclimation effects

The present study examines how different pCO2 acclimations affect the CO2- and light-dependence of photophysiological processes and O2 fluxes in four Southern Ocean (SO) key phytoplankton species. We grew Chaetoceros debilis (Cleve), Pseudo-nitzschia subcurvata (Hasle), Fragilariopsis kerguelensis (O'Meara) and Phaeocystis antarctica (Karsten) under low (160 µatm) and high (1000 ?atm) pCO2. The CO2- and light-dependence of fluorescence parameters of photosystem II (PSII) were determined by means of a fluorescence induction relaxation system (FIRe). In all tested species, nonphotochemical quenching (NPQ) is the primary photoprotection strategy in response to short-term exposure to high light or low CO2 concentrations. In C. debilis and P. subcurvata, PSII connectivity (p) and functional absorption cross-sections of PSII in ambient light (sigma PSII') also contributed to photoprotection while changes in re-oxidation times of Qa acceptor (tQa) were more significant in F. kerguelensis. The latter was also the only species being responsive to high acclimation pCO2, as these cells had enhanced relative electron transport rates (rETRs) and sigma PSII' while tQa and p were reduced under short-term exposure to high irradiance. Low CO2-acclimated cells of F. kerguelensis and all pCO2 acclimations of C. debilis and P. subcurvata showed dynamic photoinhibition with increasing irradiance. To test for the role and presence of the Mehler reaction in C. debilis and P. subcurvata, the light-dependence of O2 fluxes was estimated using membrane inlet mass spectrometry (MIMS). Our results show that the Mehler reaction is absent in both species under the tested conditions. We also observed that dark respiration was strongly reduced under high pCO2 in C. debilis while it remained unaltered in P. subcurvata. Our study revealed species-specific differences in the photophysiological responses to pCO2, both on the acclimation as well as the short-term level.

Impacts of elevated CO2 on particulate and dissolved organic matter production: microcosm experiments using iron-deficient plankton communities in open subarctic waters

Response of phytoplankton to increasing CO2 in seawater in terms of physiology and ecology is key to predicting changes in marine ecosystems. However, responses of natural plankton communities especially in the open ocean to higher CO2 levels have not been fully examined. We conducted CO2 manipulation experiments in the Bering Sea and the central subarctic Pacific, known as high nutrient and low chlorophyll regions, in summer 2007 to investigate the response of organic matter production in iron-deficient plankton communities to CO2 increases. During the 14-day incubations of surface waters with natural plankton assemblages in microcosms under multiple pCO2 levels, the dynamics of particulate organic carbon (POC) and nitrogen (PN), and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and phosphorus (DOP) were examined with the plankton community compositions. In the Bering site, net production of POC, PN, and DOP relative to net chlorophyll-a production decreased with increasing pCO2. While net produced POC:PN did not show any CO2-related variations, net produced DOC:DOP increased with increasing pCO2. On the other hand, no apparent trends for these parameters were observed in the Pacific site. The contrasting results observed were probably due to the different plankton community compositions between the two sites, with plankton biomass dominated by large-sized diatoms in the Bering Sea versus ultra-eukaryotes in the Pacific Ocean. We conclude that the quantity and quality of the production of particulate and dissolved organic matter may be altered under future elevated CO2 environments in some iron-deficient ecosystems, while the impacts may be negligible in some systems.

European sea bass, Dicentrarchus labrax, in a changing ocean

Ocean acidification, caused by rising concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), is widely considered to be a major global threat to marine ecosystems. To investigate the potential effects of ocean acidification on the early life stages of a commercially important fish species, European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), 12 000 larvae were incubated from hatch through metamorphosis under a matrix of two temperatures (17 and 19 °C) and two seawater pCO2 levels (ambient and 1,000 µatm) and sampled regularly for 42 days. Calculated daily mortality was significantly affected by both temperature and pCO2, with both increased temperature and elevated pCO2 associated with lower daily mortality and a significant interaction between these two factors. There was no significant pCO2 effect noted on larval morphology during this period but larvae raised at 19 °C possessed significantly larger eyes and lower carbon:nitrogen ratios at the end of the study compared to those raised under 17 °C. Similarly, when the incubation was continued to post-metamorphic (juvenile) animals (day 67-69), fish raised under a combination of 19 °C and 1000 µatm pCO2 were significantly heavier. However, juvenile D. labrax raised under this combination of 19 °C and 1000 µatm pCO2 also exhibited lower aerobic scopes than those incubated at 19 °C and ambient pCO2. Most studies investigating the effects of near-future oceanic conditions on the early life stages of marine fish have used incubations of relatively short durations and suggested that these animals are resilient to ocean acidification. Whilst the increased survival and growth observed in this study supports this view, we conclude that more work is required to investigate whether the differences in juvenile physiology observed in this study manifest as negative impacts in adult fish.

Responses of the metabolism of the larvae of Pocillopora damicornis to ocean acidification and warming

Ocean acidification and warming are expected to threaten the persistence of tropical coral reef ecosystems. As coral reefs face multiple stressors, the distribution and abundance of corals will depend on the successful dispersal and settlement of coral larvae under changing environmental conditions. To explore this scenario, we used metabolic rate, at holobiont and molecular levels, as an index for assessing the physiological plasticity of Pocillopora damicornis larvae from this site to conditions of ocean acidity and warming. Larvae were incubated for 6 hours in seawater containing combinations of CO2 concentration (450 and 950 µatm) and temperature (28 and 30°C). Rates of larval oxygen consumption were higher at elevated temperatures. In contrast, high CO2 levels elicited depressed metabolic rates, especially for larvae released later in the spawning period. Rates of citrate synthase, a rate-limiting enzyme in aerobic metabolism, suggested a biochemical limit for increasing oxidative capacity in coral larvae in a warming, acidifying ocean. Biological responses were also compared between larvae released from adult colonies on the same day (cohorts). The metabolic physiology of Pocillopora damicornis larvae varied significantly by day of release. Additionally, we used environmental data collected on a reef in Moorea, French Polynesia to provide information about what adult corals and larvae may currently experience in the field. An autonomous pH sensor provided a continuous time series of pH on the natal fringing reef. In February/March, 2011, pH values averaged 8.075±0.023. Our results suggest that without adaptation or acclimatization, only a portion of naïve Pocillopora damicornis larvae may have suitable metabolic phenotypes for maintaining function and fitness in an end-of-the century ocean.

Calcification rate of massive Porites spp. and Porites rus in the experiment of Moorea

This study tested the hypothesis that the response of corals to temperature and pCO2 is consistent between taxa. Juvenile massive Porites spp. and branches of P. rus from the back reef of Moorea were incubated for 1 month under combinations of temperature (29.3 °C and 25.6 °C) and pCO2 (41.6 Pa and 81.5 Pa) at an irradiance of 599 µmol quanta/m/s. Using microcosms and CO2 gas mixing technology, treatments were created in a partly nested design (tanks) with two between-plot factors (temperature and pCO2), and one within-plot factor (taxon); calcification was used as a dependent variable. pCO2 and temperature independently affected calcification, but the response differed between taxa. Massive Porites spp. was largely unaffected by the treatments, but P. rus grew 50% faster at 29.3 °C compared with 25.6 °C, and 28% slower at 81.5 Pa vs. 41.6 Pa CO2. A compilation of studies placed the present results in a broader context and tested the hypothesis that calcification for individual coral genera is independent of pH, [HCO3]-, and [CO3]2-. Unlike recent reviews, this analysis was restricted to studies reporting calcification in units that could be converted to nmol CaCO3/cm**2/h. The compilation revealed a high degree of variation in calcification as a function of pH, [HCO3]-, and [CO3]2-, and supported three conclusions: (1) studies of the effects of ocean acidification on corals need to pay closer attention to reducing variance in experimental outcomes to achieve stronger synthetic capacity, (2) coral genera respond in dissimilar ways to pH, [HCO3]-, and [CO3]2-, and (3) calcification of massive Porites spp. is relatively resistant to short exposures of increased pCO2, similar to that expected within 100 y.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and copepod Centropages tenuiremis feeding, filtering and respiration rate during experiments, 2012

Climate change mediates marine chemical and physical environments and therefore influences marine organisms. While increasing atmospheric CO2 level and associated ocean acidification has been predicted to stimulate marine primary productivity and may affect community structure, the processes that impact food chain and biological CO2 pump are less documented. We hypothesized that copepods, as the secondary marine producer, may respond to future changes in seawater carbonate chemistry associated with ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration. Here, we show that the copepod, Centropages tenuiremis, was able to perceive the chemical changes in seawater induced under elevated CO2 concentration (>1700 µatm, pH < 7.60) with avoidance strategy. The copepod's respiration increased at the elevated CO2 (1000 µatm), associated acidity (pH 7.83) and its feeding rates also increased correspondingly, except for the initial acclimating period, when it fed less. Our results imply that marine secondary producers increase their respiration and feeding rate in response to ocean acidification to balance the energy cost against increased acidity and CO2 concentration.

Seawater carbonate chemistry and protein and chlorophyll a content per nubbin of Acropora muricata during observations of La Saline fringing reef, La Reunion Island, western Indian Ocean, 2011

The effect of decreasing aragonite saturation state (Omega Arag) of seawater (elevated pCO2) on calcification rates of Acropora muricata was studied using nubbins prepared from parent colonies located at two sites of La Saline reef (La Réunion Island, western Indian Ocean): a back-reef site (BR) affected by nutrient-enriched groundwater discharge (mainly nitrate), and a reef flat site (RF) with low terrigenous inputs. Protein and chlorophyll a content of the nubbins, as well as zooxanthellae abundance, were lower at RF than BR. Nubbins were incubated at ~27°C over 2 h under sunlight, in filtered seawater manipulated to get differing initial pCO2 (1,440-340 µatm), Omega Arag (1.4-4.0), and dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) concentrations (2,100-1,850 µmol/kg). Increasing DIC concentrations at constant total alkalinity (AT) resulted in a decrease in Omega Arag and an increase in pCO2. AT at the beginning of the incubations was kept at a natural level of 2,193 ± 6 µmol/kg (mean ± SD). Net photosynthesis (NP) and calcification were calculated from changes in pH and AT during the incubations. Calcification decrease in response to doubling pCO2 relative to preindustrial level was 22% for RF nubbins. When normalized to surface area of the nubbins, (1) NP and calcification were higher at BR than RF, (2) NP increased in high pCO2 treatments at BR compared to low pCO2 treatments, and (3) calcification was not related to Omega Arag at BR. When normalized to NP, calcification was linearly related to Omega Arag at both sites, and the slopes of the relationships were not significantly different. The increase in NP at BR in the high pCO2 treatments may have increased calcification and thus masked the negative effect of low Omega Arag on calcification. Removing the effect of NP variations at BR showed that calcification declined in a similar manner with decreased Omega Arag (increased pCO2) whatever the nutrient loading.

Effects of ultraviolet radiation and CO2 increase on winter phytoplankton assemblages in a temperate coastal lagoon

Increases in ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and CO2 affect phytoplankton growth and mortality in a variety of different ways. However, in situ responses of natural phytoplankton communities to climate change, as well as its effects on phytoplankton annual cycles, are still largely unknown. Although temperature and UVR have been increasing in temperate latitudes during winter, this season is still particularly neglected in climate change studies, being considered a non-active season regarding phytoplankton growth and production. Additionally, coastal lagoons are highly productive ecosystems and very vulnerable to climate change. This study aims, therefore, to evaluate the short-term effects of increased UVR and CO2 on the composition and growth of winter phytoplankton assemblages in a temperate coastal lagoon. During winter 2012, microcosm experiments were used to evaluate the isolated and combined effects of UVR and CO2, under ambient and high CO2 treatments, exposed to ambient UV levels and photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), or to PAR only. Phytoplankton composition, abundance, biomass and photosynthetic parameters were evaluated during the experiments. Significant changes were observed in the growth of specific phytoplankton groups, leading to changes in community composition. The cyanobacterium Synechococcus was dominant at the beginning of the experiment, but it was negatively affected by UVR and CO2. Diatoms clearly benefited from high CO2 and UVR, particularly Thalassiosira. Despite the changes observed in specific phytoplankton groups, growth and production of the whole phytoplankton community did not show significant responses to UVR and/or CO2.

Trichodesmium's strategies to alleviate phosphorus limitation in the future acidified oceans

Global warming may exacerbate inorganic nutrient limitation, including phosphorus (P), in the surface-waters of tropical oceans that are home to extensive blooms of the marine diazotrophic cyanobacterium, Trichodesmium. We examined the combined effects of P limitation and pCO2, forecast under ocean acidification scenarios, on Trichodesmium erythraeum IMS101 cultures. We measured nitrogen acquisition, glutamine synthetase activity, C uptake rates, intracellular Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) concentration and the pool sizes of related key proteins. Here, we present data supporting the idea that cellular energy re-allocation enables the higher growth and N2 fixation rates detected in Trichodesmium cultured under high pCO2. This is reflected in altered protein abundance and metabolic pools. Also modified are particulate organic carbon and nitrogen production rates, enzymatic activities, and cellular ATP concentrations. We suggest that adjusting these cellular pathways to changing environmental conditions enables Trichodesmium to compensate for low P availability and to thrive in acidified oceans. Moreover, elevated pCO2 could provide Trichodesmium with a competitive dominance that would extend its niche, particularly in P-limited regions of the tropical and subtropical oceans.