Rikottujen ikkunoiden nollatoleranssi. Tutkimus New Yorkin rikoksentorjunnan uuskonservatiivi-mallista Suomessa

Väitöskirja on kriminologista kontrollin ja rikoksentorjunnan tutkimusta sekä poliisitutkimusta. Kohteena on ympäri maailmaa levinnyt nollatoleranssiksi kutsuttu järjestyspoliisistrategia. Strategiaa kokeiltiin vuosituhannen vaihteessa vuoden kestäneessä järjestyksenvalvonnan hankkeessa Tampereella. Vaikka kyseessä oli kokeilu, niin tutkimuksessa osoitetaan toimintatavan olleen ja olevan pitkälti kiinteä osa perinteistä suomalaisen järjestyspoliisin toimintaperiaatetta. Artikkeliväitöskirja sisältää viisi vuosina 1998–2005 julkaistua kirjoitusta. Kokoavan yhteenvetoartikkelin tutkimusongelmat ovat seuraavat: Millaisia ovat Yhdysvaltojen ja Suomen järjestyspoliisitoiminnan nollatoleranssien mekanismien, kontekstien ja vaikutusten keskeiset erot ja yhtäläisyydet? Millainen on Tampereen nollatoleranssikokeilu ja New Yorkin rikottujen ikkunoiden nollatoleranssi rikoksentorjunnan arvioinnin ja moraalisäätelyn esimerkkeinä? Tampereen kokeilun prosessi- ja vaikuttavuusarviointitutkimus koostaa tutkimuksen empiirisen aineiston. Hankkeen alku- ja loppumittauksena toimi lomakekysely tamperelaisille (2 x n2000). Lisäksi analyysissä käytettiin kansalaiskyselyn uhrikyselyä, poliisin rikos- ja päivystyskeskustilastoja, Tilastokeskuksen tilastoja, hankkeen suoritelomakkeita sekä rangaistusvaatimus- ja rikesakkolomakkeita sekä kouluterveystutkimuksia. Tampereen poliiseille tehtiin lomakekysely ja teemahaastatteluja. Sosiaali-, nuoriso- ja vapaaehtoistyöntekijöitä sekä yli viisikymmentä tamperelaista nuorta sekä kymmenkunta tamperelaista aikuista haastateltiin. Yhdysvaltojen osalta nojaudutaan verrattain suureen määrään julkaistua korkeatasoista ja ajankohtaista kriminologista tutkimusta. New Yorkiin ja Yhdysvaltoihin sovelletussa hallintavalta- ja moraalisäätelyanalyysissa rikotut ikkunat -teoria osoittautuu uuskonservatiiviseksi moraaliprojektiksi, joka opastaa kaupunkeja hankkimaan itselleen oikeuden tiukkaan järjestyksenvalvontaan. Aiemmin sen oli estänyt kansalaisoikeusmyönteinen lakien tulkinta. New Yorkissa ja Tampereella syntyi useita kielteisiä sivu- ja vastavaikutuksia, kuten ongelmien siirtymistä (displacement). Tämä on yksi keskeinen tulos tilannetorjunnan ja kontrollin tehostamisen ja kohdistamisen hankkeissa. Tulokset haastavat arvioimaan kriittisesti, ovatko kaikki lapsiin ja nuoriin kohdistuvat varhaisen puuttumisen hankkeet seuraustensa perusteella oikeutettuja.

Outward potassium current oscillations in macrophage polykaryons: extracellular calcium entry and calcium-induced calcium release

Outward current oscillations associated with transient membrane hyperpolarizations were induced in murine macrophage polykaryons by membrane depolarization in the absence of external Na+. Oscillations corresponded to a cyclic activation of Ca2+-dependent K+ currents (IKCa) probably correlated with variations in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Addition of external Na+ (8 mM) immediately abolished the outward current oscillations, suggesting that the absence of the cation is necessary not only for their induction but also for their maintenance. Oscillations were completely blocked by nisoldipine. Ruthenium red and ryanodine reduced the number of outward current cycles in each episode, whereas quercetin prolonged the hyperpolarization 2- to 15-fold. Neither low molecular weight heparin nor the absence of a Na+ gradient across the membrane had any influence on oscillations. The evidence suggests that Ca2+ entry through a pathway sensitive to Ca2+ channel blockers is elicited by membrane depolarization in Na+-free medium and is essential to initiate oscillations, which are also dependent on the cyclic release of Ca2+ from intracellular Ca2+-sensitive stores; Ca2+ ATPase acts by reducing intracellular Ca2+, thus allowing slow deactivation of IKCa. Evidence is presented that neither a Na+/Ca2+ antiporter nor Ca2+ release from IP3-sensitive Ca2+ stores participate directly in the mechanism of oscillation

Purification of human albumin by the combination of the method of Cohn with liquid chromatography

Large volumes of plasma can be fractionated by the method of Cohn at low cost. However, liquid chromatography is superior in terms of the quality of the product obtained. In order to combine the advantages of each method, we developed an integrated method for the production of human albumin and immunoglobulin G (IgG). The cryoprecipitate was first removed from plasma for the production of factor VIII and the supernatant of the cryoprecipitate was fractionated by the method of Cohn. The first precipitate, containing fractions (F)-I + II + III, was used for the production of IgG by the chromatographic method (see Tanaka K et al. (1998) Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 31: 1375-1381). The supernatant of F-I + II + III was submitted to a second precipitation and F-IV was obtained and discarded. Albumin was obtained from the supernatant of the precipitate F-IV by liquid chromatography, ion-exchange on DEAE-Sepharose FF, filtration through Sephacryl S-200 HR and introduction of heat treatment for fatty acid precipitation. Viral inactivation was performed by pasteurization at 60ºC for 10 h. The albumin product obtained by the proposed procedure was more than 99% pure for the 15 lots of albumin produced, with a mean yield of 25.0 ± 0.5 g/l plasma, containing 99.0 to 99.3% monomer, 0.7 to 1.0% dimers, and no polymers. Prekallikrein activator levels were <=5 IU/ml. This product satisfies the requirements of the 1997 Pharmacopée Européenne.

Preparation and purification of Flavobacterium heparinum chondroitinases AC and B by hydrophobic interaction chromatography

Flavobacterium heparinum is a soil bacterium that produces several mucopolysaccharidases such as heparinase, heparitinases I and II, and chondroitinases AC, B, C and ABC. The purpose of the present study was to optimize the preparation of F. heparinum chondroitinases, which are very useful tools for the identification and structural characterization of chondroitin and dermatan sulfates. We observed that during the routine procedure for cell disruption (ultrasound, 100 kHz, 5 min) some of the chondroitinase B activity was lost. Using milder conditions (2 min), most of the chondroitinase B and AC protein was solubilized and the enzyme activities were preserved. Tryptic soy broth without glucose was the best culture medium both for bacterial growth and enzyme induction. Chondroitinases AC and B were separated from each other and also from glucuronidases and sulfatases by hydrophobic interaction chromatography on HP Phenyl-Sepharose. A rapid method for screening of the column fractions was also developed based on the metachromatic shift of the color of dimethylmethylene blue.

High quality human immunoglobulin G purified from Cohn fractions by liquid chromatography

In order to obtain intravenous immunoglobulin G (iv IgG) of high quality from F-I+II+III or F-II+III pastes prepared by the Cohn method, we developed a chromatography process using ion exchange gels, Q-Sepharose FF and CM-Sepharose FF, and Sephacryl S-300 gel filtration. Viral inactivation was performed by incubating the preparation with pepsin at pH 4.0 at 35oC for 18 h. The characteristics of 28 batches produced by us were: yield 4.3 ± 0.2 g/l plasma, i.e., a recovery of 39.1 ± 1.8%; IgG subclasses distribution: IgG1 = 58.4%, IgG2 = 34.8%, IgG3 = 4.5% and IgG4 = 2.3%; IgG size distribution was 98.4% monomers, 1.2% dimers and 0.4% polymers and protein aggregates; anticomplement activity was less than 0.5 CH50/mg IgG, and prekallikrein activator activity (PKA) was less than 5 IU/ml. These characteristics satisfied the requirements of the European Pharmacopoea edition, and the regulations of the Brazilian Health Ministry (M.S. Portaria No. 2, 30/10/1998).

Efficacy, safety, quality control, marketing and regulatory guidelines for herbal medicines (phytotherapeutic agents)

This review highlights the current advances in knowledge about the safety, efficacy, quality control, marketing and regulatory aspects of botanical medicines. Phytotherapeutic agents are standardized herbal preparations consisting of complex mixtures of one or more plants which contain as active ingredients plant parts or plant material in the crude or processed state. A marked growth in the worldwide phytotherapeutic market has occurred over the last 15 years. For the European and USA markets alone, this will reach about $7 billion and $5 billion per annum, respectively, in 1999, and has thus attracted the interest of most large pharmaceutical companies. Insufficient data exist for most plants to guarantee their quality, efficacy and safety. The idea that herbal drugs are safe and free from side effects is false. Plants contain hundreds of constituents and some of them are very toxic, such as the most cytotoxic anti-cancer plant-derived drugs, digitalis and the pyrrolizidine alkaloids, etc. However, the adverse effects of phytotherapeutic agents are less frequent compared with synthetic drugs, but well-controlled clinical trials have now confirmed that such effects really exist. Several regulatory models for herbal medicines are currently available including prescription drugs, over-the-counter substances, traditional medicines and dietary supplements. Harmonization and improvement in the processes of regulation is needed, and the general tendency is to perpetuate the German Commission E experience, which combines scientific studies and traditional knowledge (monographs). Finally, the trend in the domestication, production and biotechnological studies and genetic improvement of medicinal plants, instead of the use of plants harvested in the wild, will offer great advantages, since it will be possible to obtain uniform and high quality raw materials which are fundamental to the efficacy and safety of herbal drugs.

Minimizing Circulating Current in Parallel-Connected Photovoltaic Inverters

Parallel-connected photovoltaic inverters are required in large solar plants where it is not economically or technically reasonable to use a single inverter. Currently, parallel inverters require individual isolating transformers to cut the path for the circulating current. In this doctoral dissertation, the problem is approached by attempting to minimize the generated circulating current. The circulating current is a function of the generated common-mode voltages of the parallel inverters and can be minimized by synchronizing the inverters. The synchronization has previously been achieved by a communication link. However, in photovoltaic systems the inverters may be located far apart from each other. Thus, a control free of communication is desired. It is shown in this doctoral dissertation that the circulating current can also be obtained by a common-mode voltage measurement. A control method based on a short-time switching frequency transition is developed and tested with an actual photovoltaic environment of two parallel inverters connected to two 5 kW solar arrays. Controls based on the measurement of the circulating current and the common-mode voltage are generated and tested. A communication-free method of controlling the circulating current between parallelconnected inverters is developed and verified.

A micromethod for quantitation of debrisoquine and 4-hydroxydebrisoquine in urine by liquid chromatography

We describe a new simple, selective and sensitive micromethod based on HPLC and fluorescence detection to measure debrisoquine (D) and 4-hydroxydebrisoquine (4-OHD) in urine for the investigation of xenobiotic metabolism by debrisoquine hydroxylase (CYP2D6). Four hundred µl of urine was required for the analysis of D and 4-OHD. Peaks were eluted at 8.3 min (4-OHD), 14.0 min (D) and 16.6 min for the internal standard, metoprolol (20 µg/ml). The 5-µm CN-reverse-phase column (Shimpack, 250 x 4.6 mm) was eluted with a mobile phase consisting of 0.25 M acetate buffer, pH 5.0, and acetonitrile (9:1, v/v) at 0.7 ml/min with detection at lexcitation = 210 nm and lemission = 290 nm. The method, validated on the basis of measurements of spiked urine, presented 3 ng/ml (D) and 6 ng/ml (4-OHD) sensitivity, 390-6240 ng/ml (D) and 750-12000 ng/ml (4-OHD) linearity, and 5.7/8.2% (D) and 5.3/8.2% (4-OHD) intra/interassay precision. The method was validated using urine of a healthy Caucasian volunteer who received one 10-mg tablet of Declinax®, po, in the morning after an overnight fast. Urine samples (diuresis of 4 or 6 h) were collected from zero to 24 h. The urinary excretion of D and 4-OHD, Fel (0-24 h), i.e., fraction of dose administered and excreted into urine, was 6.4% and 31.9%, respectively. The hydroxylation capacity index reported as metabolic ratio was 0.18 (D/4-OHD) for the person investigated and can be compared to reference limits of >12.5 for poor metabolizers (PM) and <12.5 for extensive metabolizers (EM). In parallel, the recovery ratio (RR), another hydroxylation capacity index, was 0.85 (4-OHD: SD + 4-OHD) versus reference limits of RR <0.12 for PM and RR >0.12 for EM. The healthy volunteer was considered to be an extensive metabolizer on the basis of the debrisoquine test.

Radio-frequency-based measurement methods for bearing current analysis in induction motors

The most common reason for a low-voltage induction motor breakdown is a bearing failure. Along with the increasing popularity of modern frequency converters, bearing failures have become the most important motor fault type. Conditions in which bearing currents are likely to occur are generated as a side effect of fast du/dt switching transients. Once present, different types of bearing currents can accelerate the mechanical wear of bearings by causing deformation of metal parts in the bearing and degradation of the lubricating oil properties.The bearing current phenomena are well known, and several bearing current measurement and mitigation methods have been proposed. Nevertheless, in order to develop more feasible methods to measure and mitigate bearing currents, better knowledge of the phenomena is required. When mechanical wear is caused by bearing currents, the resulting aging impact has to be monitored and dealt with. Moreover, because of the stepwise aging mechanism, periodically executed condition monitoring measurements have been found ineffective. Thus, there is a need for feasible bearing current measurement methods that can be applied in parallel with the normal operation of series production drive systems. In order to reach the objectives of feasibility and applicability, nonintrusive measurement methods are preferred. In this doctoral dissertation, the characteristics and conditions of bearings that are related to the occurrence of different kinds of bearing currents are studied. Further, the study introduces some nonintrusive radio-frequency-signal-based approaches to detect and measure parameters that are associated with the accelerated bearing wear caused by bearing currents.

Comparison of the quantification of caffeine in human plasma by gas chromatography and ELISA

In the present study we evaluated the precision of the ELISA method to quantify caffeine in human plasma and compared the results with those obtained by gas chromatography. A total of 58 samples were analyzed by gas chromatography using a nitrogen-phosphorus detector and routine techniques. For the ELISA test, the samples were diluted to obtain a concentration corresponding to 50% of the absorbance of the standard curve. To determine whether the proximity between the I50 of the standard curve and that of the sample would bring about a more precise result, the samples were divided into three blocks according to the criterion of difference, in modulus, of the I50 of the standard curve and of the I50 of the sample. The samples were classified into three groups. The first was composed of 20 samples with I50 up to 1.5 ng/ml, the second consisted of 21 samples with I50 ranging from 1.51 to 3 ng/ml, and the third of 17 samples with I50 ranging from 3.01 to 13 ng/ml. The determination coefficient (R² = 0.999) showed that the data obtained by gas chromatography represented a reliable basis. The results obtained by ELISA were also reliable, with an estimated Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.82 between the two methods. This coefficient for the different groups (0.88, 0.79 and 0.49 for groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively) showed greater reliability for the test with dilutions closer to I50.

Isolation of bovine plasma albumin by liquid chromatography and its polymerization for use in immunohematology

The aim of the method described here is to remove hemoglobin, the major contaminant in the bovine plasma obtained from slaughterhouses, by adding a mixture of 19% cold ethanol and 0.6% chloroform, followed by fibrinogen and globulin precipitation by the Cohn method and nonspecific hemagglutinin by thermocoagulation. The experimental volume of bovine plasma was 2,000 ml per batch. Final purification was performed by liquid chromatography using the ion-exchange gel DEAE-Sepharose FF. The bovine albumin thus obtained presented > or = 99% purity, a yield of 25.0 ± 1.2 g/l plasma and >71.5% recovery. N-acetyl-DL-tryptophan (0.04 mmol/g protein) and sodium caprylate (0.04 mmol/g protein) were used as stabilizers and the final concentration of albumin was adjusted to 22.0% (w/v), pH 7.2 to 7.3. Viral inactivation was performed by pasteurization for 10 h at 60°C. The bovine albumin for the hemagglutination tests used in immunohematology was submitted to chemical treatment with 0.06% (w/v) glutaraldehyde and 0.1% (w/v) formaldehyde at 37°C for 12 h to obtain polymerization. A change in molecular distribution was observed after this treatment, with average contents of 56.0% monomers, 23.6% dimers, 12.2% trimers and 8.2% polymers. The tests performed demonstrated that this polymerized albumin enhances the agglutination of Rho(D)-positive red cells by anti-Rho(D) serum, permitting and improving visualization of the results.

Pupil size following dark adaptation in patients with retinitis pigmentosa

According to the equivalent light hypothesis, molecular defects in the photoreceptor lead to a continuous activation of the photoreceptor cascade in a manner equivalent to real light. The consequences in diseases such as retinitis pigmentosa (RP) are as disruptive to the cells as real light. Two forms of the equivalent light hypothesis can be distinguished: strong - mutations in rhodopsin or other cascade proteins in some forms of RP continuously excite the visual phototransduction cascade; weak - disruption of outer segments in all patients with RP eliminates circulating dark current and blocks neurotransmitter release in a manner similar to real light. Both forms of the equivalent light hypothesis predict that pupils of patients with RP will be constricted like those of normal subjects in the light. The purpose of this study was to test the equivalent light hypothesis by determining whether steady-state pupil diameter following full dark adaptation is abnormally small in any of a sample of patients with RP. Thirty-five patients with RP and 15 normal subjects were tested. Direct steady-state pupillometric measures were obtained from one eye in a full-field dome after 45 min of dark adaptation by videotaping the pupil with an infrared camera. Mean pupil diameter in the dark was comparable (t = -0.15, P = 0.88) between patients with RP (6.85 ± 0.58 mm) and normal subjects (6.82 ± 0.76 mm). The results of the present study are clearly counter to the prediction of the second (weaker) form of the equivalent light hypothesis.

Impaired beta-adrenergic response and decreased L-type calcium current of hypertrophied left ventricular myocytes in postinfarction heart failure

Infarct-induced heart failure is usually associated with cardiac hypertrophy and decreased ß-adrenergic responsiveness. However, conflicting results have been reported concerning the density of L-type calcium current (I Ca(L)), and the mechanisms underlying the decreased ß-adrenergic inotropic response. We determined I Ca(L) density, cytoplasmic calcium ([Ca2+]i) transients, and the effects of ß-adrenergic stimulation (isoproterenol) in a model of postinfarction heart failure in rats. Left ventricular myocytes were obtained by enzymatic digestion 8-10 weeks after infarction. Electrophysiological recordings were obtained using the patch-clamp technique. [Ca2+]i transients were investigated via fura-2 fluorescence. ß-Adrenergic receptor density was determined by [³H]-dihydroalprenolol binding to left ventricle homogenates. Postinfarction myocytes showed a significant 25% reduction in mean I Ca(L) density (5.7 ± 0.28 vs 7.6 ± 0.32 pA/pF) and a 19% reduction in mean peak [Ca2+]i transients (0.13 ± 0.007 vs 0.16 ± 0.009) compared to sham myocytes. The isoproterenol-stimulated increase in I Ca(L) was significantly smaller in postinfarction myocytes (Emax: 63.6 ± 4.3 vs 123.3 ± 0.9% in sham myocytes), but EC50 was not altered. The isoproterenol-stimulated peak amplitude of [Ca2+]i transients was also blunted in postinfarction myocytes. Adenylate cyclase activation through forskolin produced similar I Ca(L) increases in both groups. ß-Adrenergic receptor density was significantly reduced in homogenates from infarcted hearts (Bmax: 93.89 ± 20.22 vs 271.5 ± 31.43 fmol/mg protein in sham myocytes), while Kd values were similar. We conclude that postinfarction myocytes from large infarcts display reduced I Ca(L) density and peak [Ca2+]i transients. The response to ß-adrenergic stimulation was also reduced and was probably related to ß-adrenergic receptor down-regulation and not to changes in adenylate cyclase activity.

Reimmunization after bone marrow transplantation: current recommendations and perspectives

Autologous and allogeneic bone marrow transplantation (BMT) recipients lose immune memory of exposure to infectious agents and vaccines accumulated through a lifetime and therefore need to be revaccinated. Diphtheria toxoid, tetanus toxoid, pertussis vaccine (children <7 years old), Haemophilus influenzae type b conjugate, 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide, inactivated influenza vaccine, inactivated polio vaccine and live-attenuated measles-mumps-rubella vaccine are the currently recommended vaccines to be included in a vaccination program after BMT. For most of them, the best time to vaccinate, the number of vaccine doses and/or the duration of immunity after vaccination have not been established. Vaccination protocols vary greatly among BMT centers, suggesting that the lack of sufficient data has not permitted the formulation of reliable recommendations. The use of other vaccines and the perspectives for different vaccination protocols are analyzed in this review.