Mycobacterium bovis–Infected White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus): Detection of Immunoglobulin Specific to Crude Mycobacterial Antigens by ELISA

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have recently emerged as a source of Mycobacterium bovis infection for cattle within North America. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antibody response of M. bovis–infected deer to crude mycobacterial antigens. Deer were experimentally inoculated with M. bovis strain 1315 either by intratonsilar instillation or by exposure to M. bovis–infected (i.e., in contact) deer. To determine the time course of the response, including the effects of antigen administration for comparative cervical skin testing, serum was collected periodically and evaluated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for immunoglobulin (i.e., IgG heavy and light chains) reactivity to mycobacterial antigens. The reactivity to M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPDb) exceeded (P < 0.05) the reactivity to M. avium PPD (PPDa) only after in vivo administration of PPDa and PPDb for comparative cervical testing of the infected deer. The mean immunoglobulin response, as measured by ELISA, of intratonsilar-inoculated deer to a proteinase K–digested whole-cell sonicate (WCS-PK) of M. bovis strain 1315 exceeded (P < 0.05) the mean of the prechallenge responses to this antigen at approximately 1 month after inoculation and throughout the remainder of the study (i.e., ~11 months). This response also exceeded (P < 0.05) that of the uninfected deer. Although this is encouraging, further studies are necessary to validate the use of the proteinase K–digested M. bovis antigens in the antibody-based assays of tuberculosis.

Bovine Tuberculosis in Free-Ranging White-Tailed Deer From Michigan

A 4.5 yr-old male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) killed by a hunter during the 1994 firearm hunting season in northeastern Michigan (USA) had lesions suggestive of tuberculosis and was positive on culture for Mycobacterium bovis the causative agent for bovine tuberculosis. Subsequently, a survey of 354 hunter-harvested white-tailed deer for tuberculosis was conducted in this area from 15 November 1995 through 5 January 1996. Heads and/or lungs from deer were examined grossly and microscopically for lesions suggestive of bovine tuberculosis. Gross lesions suggestive of tuberculosis were seen in 15 deer. Tissues from 16 deer had acid-fast bacilli on histological examination and in 12 cases mycobacterial isolates from lymph nodes and/or lungs were identified as M. bovis. In addition, lymph nodes from 12 deer (11 females and 1 male) without gross or microscopic lesions were pooled into 1 sample from which M. bovis was cultured. Although more male (9) than female (3) deer had bovine tuberculosis infections, this difference was not statistically significant. Mycobacterium bovis culture positive deer ranged in age from 1.5 to 5.5 yr with a mean of 2.7 yr (median 2.5 yr) for males and 3.2 yr (median 3.5 yr) for females. This appears to be the first epidemic occurrence of M. bovis in free-ranging cervids in North America. A combination of environmental (high deer density and poor quality habit) and management-related factors (extensive supplemental feeding) may be responsible for this epizootic.

Recommendations for Elimination of Bovine Tuberculosis in Free-Ranging White-Tailed Deer in Michigan

A significant infection rate of bovine TB in the deer population of the northeastern lower peninsula poses a potential risk to several important values including public health, United States Department of Agriculture (U.S.D.A.) TB-free accreditation for Michigan cattle, wildlife health, wildlife-related recreation and tourism and economic stability in several sectors. A risk assessment study by the U.S. D.A. Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health (Fort Collins, CO) predicted that if no changes were made in the management of the affected free-ranging deer population, the TB prevalence (compared to the current prevalence of 2.3%). Although the current annual risk of TB transfer to cattle in the affected area is .I%, the report estimated a 12% cumulative risk that at least one head of cattle would become infected over the next 25 years if no changes are made in deer and/or cattle management.

Vaccination with Mycobacterium bovis BCG Strains Danish and Pasteur in White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Experimentally Challenged with Mycobacterium bovis

Wildlife reservoirs of Mycobacterium bovis represent serious obstacles to the eradication of tuberculosis in domestic livestock and the cause for many faltering bovine tuberculosis eradication programs. One approach in dealing with wildlife reservoirs of disease is to interrupt inter-species and intraspecies transmission through vaccination of deer or cattle. To evaluate the efficacy of BCG vaccination in white-tailed deer, 35 deer were assigned to one of three groups; one s.c. dose of 107 CFU of M. bovis BCG Pasteur (n = 12); 1 s.c. dose of 107 CFU of M. bovis BCG Danish (n = 11); or unvaccinated deer (n = 12). After vaccination, deer were inoculated intratonsilarly with virulent M. bovis. Lesion severity scores of the medial retropharyngeal lymph node, as well as all lymph nodes combined, were reduced in vaccinated deer compared to unvaccinated deer. BCG Danish vaccinated deer had no late stage granulomas characterized by coalescent caseonecrotic granulomas containing numerous acid-fast bacilli compared to BCG Pasteur vaccinated or unvaccinated deer where such lesions were present. Both BCG strains were isolated as late as 250 days after vaccination from deer that were vaccinated but not challenged. In white-tailed deer, BCG provides protection against challenge with virulent M. bovis. Issues related to vaccine persistence, safety and shedding remain to be further investigated.

Vaccination of White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) with Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette Guerin

Wildlife reservoirs of Mycobacterium bovis represent serious obstacles to the eradication of tuberculosis in domestic livestock. In Michigan, USA tuberculous white-tailed deer transmit M. bovis to cattle. One approach in dealing with this wildlife reservoir is to vaccinate deer in order to interrupt the cycle of deer to deer and deer to cattle transmission. Thirty-one white-tailed deer were assigned to one of three groups; 2 SC doses of 107 CFU of M. bovis BCG (n = 11); 1 SC dose of 107 CFU of M. bovis BCG (n = 10); or unvaccinated deer (n = 10). After vaccination, deer were inoculated intratonsilarly with 300 CFU of virulent M. bovis. Gross lesion severity scores of the medial retropharyngeal lymph node were significantly reduced in deer receiving 2 doses of BCG compared to unvaccinated deer. Vaccinated deer had fewer lymph node granulomas than unvaccinated deer, and most notably, fewer late stage granulomas characterized by coalescent caseonecrotic granulomas containing numerous acid-fast bacilli. BCG was isolated from 7/21 vaccinated deer as long as 249 days after vaccination. In one case BCG was transmitted from a vaccinated deer to an unvaccinated deer. In white-tailed deer BCG provides measurable protection against challenge with virulent M. bovis. However, persistence of vaccine within tissues as well as shedding of BCG from vaccinates remain areas for further investigation.

Evaluation of an In Vitro Blood-Based Assay to Detect Production of Interferon-γ By Mycobacterium Bovis–Infected White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus Virginianus)

Tuberculosis due to Mycobacterium bovis in captive Cervidae was identified as an important disease in the United States in 1990 and prompted the addition of captive Cervidae to the USDA Uniform Methods and Rules for eradication of bovine tuberculosis. As well, M. bovis infection was identified in free-ranging white-tailed deer in northeast Michigan in 1995. Tuberculosis in both captive and free-ranging Cervidae represents a serious challenge to the eradication of M. bovis infection from the United States. Currently, the only approved antemortem tests for tuberculosis in Cervidae are the intradermal tuberculin skin test and the blood tuberculosis test (BTB). At present, the BTB is not available in North America. Tuberculin skin testing of Cervidae is time-consuming and involves repeated animal handling and risk of injury to animals and humans. This study evaluated the potential of a new blood-based assay for tuberculosis in Cervidae that would decrease animal handling, stress, and losses due to injury. In addition, a blood-based assay could provide a more rapid diagnosis. Twenty 6–9-month-old white-tailed deer, male and female, were experimentally inoculated by instillation of 300 colony-forming units of M. bovis in the tonsillar crypts. Seven, age-matched uninfected deer served as controls. Blood was collected on days 90, 126, 158, 180, 210, 238, 263, and 307 after inoculation and was analyzed for the production of interferon-γ (IFN-γ) in response to incubation with M. bovis purified protein derivative (PPDb), M. avium PPDa, pokeweed mitogen (PWM), or media alone. Production of IFN-g in response to PPDb was significantly greater (P < 0.05) at all time points in samples from M. bovis–infected deer as compared with uninfected control deer, whereas IFN-γ production to PWM did not differ significantly between infected and control deer. Measurement of IFN-γ production to PPDb may serve as a useful assay for the antemortem diagnosis of tuberculosis in Cervidae.

Reo-Like Virus in White Shrimp Penaeus vannamei (Crustacea: Decapoda): Co-occurrence with Baculovirus penaei in Experimental Infections

A virus, tentatively identified as reo-like, occurred concurrently with experimentally-induced Baculovirus penaei (BP) infection in cultured white shrimp larvae Penaeus vannamei. Each shrimp with a reo-like viral infection also had a BP infection, but not all BP-infected shrimp had a reo-like infection. Both viruses occurred in the same tissues and occasionally withln the same cell. The reolike virus developed in epithelial cells of the anterior midgut and in reserve- and fibrillar-cells of the hepatopancreas. The paraspherical and non-enveloped reo-like virions (ca. 50 nm diam.) occurred as unordered aggregates in the cell cytoplasm. Their etiology has not been determined. Reo-like virions may have been introduced along with the BP virus, or, were latent and only manifested due to stress induced by the more pathogenic BP virus.

Paraophioidina scolecoides n. sp., a New Aseptate Gregarine from Cultured Pacific White Shrimp Penaeus vannamei

The aseptate gregarine Paraophloidina scolecoides n. sp. (Eugregarinorida: Lecudinidae) heavily infected the midgut of cultured larval and postlarval specimens of Penaeus vannamei from a commercial 'seed-production' facility in Texas, USA. It is morphologically similar to P. korotneffi and P. vibiliae, but it can be distinguished from them and from other members of the genus by having gamonts associated exclusively by lateral syzygy. Shrimp acquired the infection at the facility; nauplii did not show any evidence of infection, but protozoea, mysis, and postlarval shrimp had a prevalence and intensity of infection ranging from 56 to 80 % and 10 to >50 parasites, respectively. Infected shrimp removed from the facility to aquaria at another location lost their gamont infection within 7 days When voided from the gut, the gregarine disintegrated in seawater. Results suggest that P. vannamei is an accidental host, although a survey of representative members of the invertebrate fauna from the environment associated with the facility failed to discover other hosts. No link was established between infection and either the broodstock or the water or detritus from the nursery or broodstock tanks.

Relationship Between BP (Baculovirus penaei) Energy Reserves in Larval and Postlarval Pacific White Shrimp Penaeus vannamei

The relationship between energy reserves of the penaeid shrimp Penaeus vannamei and Baculovirus penaei, or BP, were investigated in a series of experiments using mysis stage or early postlarval shrimp. Pre-exposure and post-exposure levels of protein and triacylgycerol (TAG) were determined. The effect of pre-exposure protein and TAG levels on susceptibility to BP infections was also investigated by starving a group of shrimp immediately prior to BP exposure. There was no consistent relationship between either pre-exposure or post-exposure protein levels and the percent of shrimp developing patent BP infections. There was, however, a significant positive correlation between TAG levels immediately prior to viral exposure and prevalence of infection 72 h later. Experimental reduction of TAG reserves prior to BP exposure delayed the development of a patent infection. In some, but not all, experiments there was a significant reduction in TAG levels of infected compared with uninfected shrimp 72 h post-exposure. The effect of patent BP infections on host TAG levels was subordinate to fluctuations in TAG content associated with the ontogeny of the hepatopancreas. Results of this study support histological observations that shrimp lipid levels can be altered by baculovirus infections. Furthermore, high levels of energy reserves in the form of TAG are associated with increased susceptibility to BP infection in larval and postlarval shrimp.

Diatoms in the Gills of the Commercial White Shrimp

A white shrimp from Galveston, Texas, is the first reported case of a crustacean internally infected by a diatom. Even though more than one species occurred in debris on and between gill filaments, only individuals of Amphora sp. occurred within gills. To determine if a related diatom would easily reproduce within the shrimp and cause. a host response similar to that observed, we injected cultured specimens of A. coffaeformis into white shrimp. Under the experimental conditions, individuals of that species did not divide, but they elicited an extensive melanistic host-response.

Review of Prairie Time: A Blackland Portrait by Matt White

Nowadays, the Blackland Prairies of north Texas are the kind of landscape most people think of as great for subdivisions and strip malls: generally flat, easily bulldozed, and not too far from Dallas-Fort Worth. Prairie Time: A Blackland Portrait traces a similar utilitarian vision of the prairie in 19th-century pioneer descriptions as well: good for plowing, grazing, and-once the buffalo and Native Americans are exterminated-not too far from outposts of commerce. The book serves as an environmental jeremiad for a place too easily seen as useful and thus too often ignored for preservation. Matt White gives readers a context in which to begin to value the Blackland Prairie by combining a heartfelt story with a thorough sense of its ecological wonder, our post-settlement history and its environmental impact on the land, and some remarkable stories of current preservationists working to find and save remnant gems of unplowed prairie.

Comparison of Two Roadside Survey Procedures for Dwarf Mistletoes on the Sawtooth National Forest, Idaho

Two roadside surveys were conducted for dwarf mistletoes parasitizing lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir on the Sawtooth National Forest, Idaho. One survey used variable-radius plots located less than 150 m from roads. The 2nd survey used variable-radius plots established at 200-m intervals along 1600-m transects run perpendicular to the same roads. Estimates of the incidence (percentage of trees infected and percentage of plots infested) and severity (average dwarf mistletoe rating) for both lodgepole pine and Douglas-fir dwarf mistletoes were not significantly different for the 2 survey methods. These findings are further evidence that roadside-plot surveys and transect-plot surveys conducted away from roads provide similar estimates of the incidence of dwarf mistletoes for large forested areas.

History and fate of a small isolated population of Weddell seals at White Island, Antarctica

Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii Lesson) at White Island, Antarctica form a small, completely enclosed, natural population hypothesized to be of recent origin, likely founded by individuals from nearby Erebus Bay. This population constitutes an ideal model to document a founder event and ensuing genetic drift, with implications for conservation. Here we combined historical accounts, census and tagging data since the late 1960s, and genetic data (41 microsatellite loci and mitochondrial DNA sequences) from 84 individuals representing nearly all individuals present between 1990 and 2000 to investigate the history of the founding of the White Island population, document its population dynamics and evaluate possible future threats. We fully resolved parental relationships over three overlapping generations. Cytonuclear disequilibrium among the first generation suggested that it comprised the direct descendants of a founding group. We estimated that the White Island population was founded by a small group of individuals that accessed the island during a brief break in the surrounding sea ice in the mid-1950s, consistent with historical accounts. Direct and indirect methods of calculating effective population size were highly congruent and suggested a minimum founding group consisting of three females and two males. The White Island population showed altered reproductive dynamics compared to Erebus Bay, including highly skewed sex ratio, documented inbred mating events, and the oldest known reproducing Weddell seals. A comparison with the putative source population showed that the White Island population has an effective inbreeding coefficient (Fe) of 0.29. Based on a pedigree analysis including the hypothesized founding group, 86% of the individuals for whom parents were known had inbreeding coefficients ranging 0.09–0.31. This high level of inbreeding was correlated with reduced pup survival. Seals at White Island therefore face the combined effects of low genetic variability, lack of immigration, and inbreeding depression. Ultimately, this study provides evidence of the effects of natural isolation on a large, long-lived vertebrate and can provide clues to the potential effects of anthropogenic- caused isolation of similar taxa.

Efficacy of Oral and Parenteral Routes of Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette-Guerin Vaccination Against Experimental Bovine Tuberculosis in White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus): A Feasibility Study

We investigated the efficacy of oral and parenteral Mycobacterium bovis bacille Calmette-Guerin Danish strain 1331 (BCG) in its ability to protect white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) against disease caused by M. bovis infection. Twenty-two white-tailed deer were divided into four groups. One group (n=5) received 109 colony-forming units (cfu) BCG via a lipid-formulated oral bait; one group (n=5) received 109 cfu BCG in culture directly to the oropharynx, one group (n=6) was vaccinated with 106 cfu BCG subcutaneously, and one group served as a control and received culture media directly to the oropharynx (n=6). All animals were challenged 3 mo after vaccination. Five months postchallenge the animals were examined for lesions. Results indicate that both oral forms of BCG and parenterally administerd BCG offered significant protection against M. bovis challenge as compared to controls. This study suggests that oral BCG vaccination may be a feasible means of controlling bovine tuberculosis in wild white-tailed deer populations.

Deer Guards and Bump Gates for Excluding White-Tailed Deer From Fenced Resources

White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) causing damage is a reoccurring theme in the realm of wildlife damage management, especially regarding human safety, disease transmission, and agricultural losses. Fences often are the only reliable long-term nonlethal means of controlling deer damage. The efficacy of fences, however, relies on their weakest link: human-operated gates. Although not overly time-consuming, the act of closing a gate appears to be a burden to individuals, resulting in open-access to an otherwise protected resource. We examined the efficacy of 2 alternatives to traditional gates to evaluate their potential to be used for excluding or containing deer. We evaluated a commercially available kit for mechanically opening and closing gates and a modified deer guard that resembles a common cattle guard but incorporates bearing-mounted rollers as cross members. The gate kit proved effective in restricting deer access to bait throughout the study, but, in supplemental evaluations, we observed excessive rates of functional failure. Deer guards reduced deer entry into exclosures, but efficacy declined with time as deer walked and jumped across guards. With some refining, both guards and gates have potential to be useful components of an integrated biosecurity strategy.