Pulsiones del espacio : Oteiza y la aproximación a la arquitectura como vacío activo

Este trabajo se centra en el estudio de las investigaciones de Jorge Oteiza en torno a la funcionalidad estética del espacio, en especial, en la actividad artística que desarrolló en el año 1958, un año decisivo en la vida del escultor en el que dio por finalizado su proceso de experimentación sobre la naturaleza espacial de la estatua. En este desenlace tuvo un papel fundamental la relación funcional que planteó, a la hora de retomar su trabajo después de su triunfo en la IV Bienal de São Paulo de 1957, entre la escultura y la arquitectura. La primera, entendida como organismo puramente espacial, debía de responder a las condiciones de su mundo circundante, el espacio arquitectónico. Su función: acondicionarlo estéticamente para satisfacer las necesidades espirituales del habitante. Siguiendo el canon estético que para la escultura acababa de anunciar en Brasil, la desocupación espacial (la liberación de la energía espacial de la estatua, el rompimiento de la neutralidad del espacio libre) no se trataba de embellecer superficialmente la arquitectura sino de activar su vacío interior. Oteiza, que siempre estuvo muy interesado por la arquitectura y que había colaborado con anterioridad en numerosas ocasiones con los mejores arquitectos del país, fue durante este año cuando profundizó de manera más sistemática (teórica y prácticamente) sobre la relación arte-arquitectura. De hecho, él mismo nombraba como el último trabajo de su línea de experimentación en escultura a su propuesta para el concurso del Monumento a José Batlle en Montevideo, que junto al arquitecto Roberto Puig acabaron a finales de año. En el proyecto se planteaba a escala urbana, y como ejemplo concreto, el modelo teórico de integración arquitectura + (arte=0) que había elaborado los meses anteriores, la integración vacía. En el texto explicativo que acompañaba al proyecto (un texto que desbordaba los límites de una memoria al uso) demandaba la necesidad de la toma de conciencia estética del espacio, como acto de libertad individual, y declaraba el fin del rol de espectador del hombre frente a la obra de arte, reclamando su participación activa en la misma. Para él, la noción del espacio estético no era una condición innata en el hombre, se descubría, se aprendía, evolucionaba y se olvidaba (una vez convertido en hábito). Frente a la ceguera de la sensibilidad espacial del hombre, proponía la educación de la percepción espacial, condicionar emocionalmente la reflexión espontánea ante el juego espacial de las formas en la naturaleza y el espectáculo natural de la ciudad. Aprender a leer el lenguaje emocional del espacio, a pensar visualmente. La obra de arte era así un catalizador espiritual del contorno del mundo, modificador de la vida espacial circundante que corregía hábitos visuales y condicionaba estímulos y reflejos. Desde una resonancia afectiva con la definición psicológica del término (como energía psíquica profunda que invita o incita a pasar a la acción), a diferencia del instinto, la pulsión (siendo la fuente de toda conducta espontánea) es susceptible de ser modificada por la experiencia, por la educación, por la cultura, por el deseo. Es desde esta aproximación en términos de energía desde la que se propone la noción pulsiones del espacio como fórmula (reversible) entre la energía espacial liberada en el proceso de desocupación definido por Oteiza y caracterizadora de la obra como vacío activo (en escultura, en arquitectura), y la energía psíquica profunda que invita o incita a la toma de posesión del espacio (la voluntad espacial absoluta con la que Oteiza definía su modelo de arte=0, cero como expresión formal). Si el hombre modifica su entorno al mismo tiempo que es condicionado por él, es indispensable una conciencia estética del espacio que le enseñe, de entre todas las posibilidades que este le ofrece, qué es lo que necesita (qué es lo que le falta), para tomar posesión de él, para un efectivo ser o existir en el espacio. Es desde esta caracterización como energía por lo que las pulsiones del espacio se sitúan entre el hombre y su entorno (construido) y permiten la transformación entre energía espacial y energía psíquica; entre su hábitat y sus hábitos. Por estas mismas fechas, Oteiza definía una casa como un conjunto articulado de vacíos activos, como una obra de plástica pura que no es arte sino en función del habitante. Es este habitante, educado en la toma de conciencia estética del espacio, el que participando activamente en la interpretación de los espacios previstos por el arquitecto, sintiendo y movido por las pulsiones del espacio, hará uso adecuado de la arquitectura; pasando de un arte como objeto a un arte como comportamiento, transformará su habitar en un arte, el arte de habitar. ABSTRACT This work focuses on the study of Jorge Oteiza’s investigations on the aesthetic functionality of space, especially on his artistic activity developed in 1958, a decisive year in the life of the sculptor, in which he gave end to his process of experimentation on the spatial nature of the statue. In this outcome it was fundamental the functional relationship that he propounded, at the time of returning to work after his triumph in the IV Bienal de São Paulo in 1957, between sculpture and architecture. The first, understood as a purely spatial organism, should respond to the conditions of its environment (umwelt), the architectonic space. Its function: set it up aesthetically to meet the spiritual needs of the inhabitant. Following the aesthetic canon that he had just announced in Brazil for sculpture, the spatial disoccupation (the liberation of the spatial energy of the statue, the breaking of the neutrality of the free space) the aim was not to superficially beautify architecture but to activate its inner void. Oteiza, who had always been very interested in architecture and who had previously collaborated on numerous occasions with the best architects in the country, was in this year when he deepened in a more systematic way (theoretically and practically) about the art-architecture relationship. In fact, he named as the last work of his line of experimentation in sculpture to his proposal for the competition of the Monument to José Batlle in Montevideo, which, developed together with the architect Roberto Puig, was ended at the end of the year. The project proposed on an urban scale, and as a concrete example, the theoretical model of integration architecture + (art = 0) which he had elaborated the previous months, the empty integration. In the explanatory text accompanying the project (a text that exceeded the normal extents of a competition statement) he demanded the need of the aesthetic awareness of space, as an act of individual freedom, and it declared the end of the role of man as passive spectator in front of the work of art, claiming his actively participation in it. For him, the notion of the aesthetic space was not an inborn condition in man; first it was discovered, then learned, evolved and finally forgotten (once converted into a habit). To counteract blindness of the spatial sensitivity of man, he proposed the education of spatial perception, to emotionally influence the spontaneous reflection in front of the spatial game of forms in nature and the natural spectacle of the city. Learn to read the emotional language of space, to think visually. The work of art was thus a spiritual catalyst of the world’s contour, a modifier of the surrounding spatial life that corrected visual habits and conditioned stimuli and reflexes. From an emotional resonance with the psychological definition of the term (such as deep psychic power that invites or urges action), as opposed to instinct, drive (being the source of all spontaneous behavior) is likely to be modified by experience, by education, by culture, by desire. It is from this approach in terms of energy from which the notion drives of space is proposed, as a (reversible) formula between the spatial energy released in the process of disoccupation defined by Oteiza and characterizing of the work as a charged void (in sculpture, in architecture), and the deep psychic energy that invites or encourages the taking possession of the space (the absolute spatial will with which Oteiza defined its model of Art = 0, zero as a formal expression). If man changes his environment at the same time that is conditioned by it, it is essential an aesthetic awareness of space that shows him, among all the possibilities that it offers, what he needs (what is what he lacks), in order to take possession of it, for an effective being or existing in space. It is this characterization as energy by what drives of space lie between man and his (built) environment and allow the transformation between spatial and psychological energy; between his habitat and his habits. Around this same time, Oteiza defined a House as an articulated set of charged voids, as a work of pure plastic that is not art but according to the inhabitant. It is this inhabitant, educated in aesthetic awareness of space, who actively participating in the interpretation of the spaces provided by the architect, feeling and moved by the drives of the space, will make proper use of the architecture; from an art as object to an art as behavior, he will transform his inhabitation into an art, the art of inhabitation.

Las casualidades controladas : la primera visibilidad del cambio del paradigma moderno

Como no pocos proyectos, el origen de esta tesis es fruto de una casualidad. Hace unos años me topé en Londres, en la librería Walden Books del 38 de Harmood St., con una primera edición de la conocida monografía de Mies a cargo de Philip Johnson. El librito, en realidad catálogo de la exposición que en 1947 el MoMA de Nueva York dedicara a la obra de Mies Van der Rohe a los diez años del desembarco del arquitecto en Estados Unidos, tiene un tamaño de 10 x 7,5 pulgadas, es decir, la mitad del formato americano Crown (20x15 pulgadas), equivalente a 508 x 381 mm. Se imprimieron, en su primera tirada, editada por The Plantin Press, 12.000 ejemplares. Ese mismo año, con edición al cuidado de Reynal y Hitchcock, se publicaría la primera traducción al inglés de Cuando las catedrales eran blancas de Le Corbusier y una selección de poemas de Lorca, siete años después de su Poeta en Nueva York. En la monografía, en la página 109, aparece el conocido croquis de Mies Sketch for a glass house on a hillside. c. 1934, escasamente unas líneas, aunque precisas y llenas de matices, de la casa en una ladera que rápidamente nos remite a aquella primera propuesta de Saarinen para una casa en el aire, primero en 1941 en Pensilvania y después, en 1945, con Charles Eames, en Los Angeles, que nunca llegarían a construirse, sino en su aliteraciones posteriores realizadas por Harry Seidler (Julian Rose House, Wahroonga, Sydney, 1949), Philip Johnson (Leonhardt house, Long Island, Nueva York, 1956) o Craig Ellwood (Smith House, Crestwood Hills, 1958; Frank & Polly Pierson House, Malibú, 1962; Chamorro House, Hollywood Hills, 1963, o la serie Weekend House, con Gerald Horn, entre 1964 y 1970, hasta el magnífico Art Center College of Design de Pasadera, su puente habitado de 1977). El relato que da origen al texto discurre en un estricto período de tiempo, desde los primeros dibujos de la Case Study House nº8, dentro del programa promovido por John Entenza y su revista Arts & Architecture en California, realizados en el estudio de Saarinen en Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, hasta que el proyecto de la casa Eames finaliza cinco años después de acabar la obra en 1955, en la versión conocida, radicalmente distinta al proyecto original, cuando la pareja Charles y Ray Eames edita el corto House After Five Years of Living. La discusión original en torno a esta casita, o mejor, a las circunstancias, casualidades controladas, que rodean su construcción, se produce estrictamente cuando rastreamos aquellos invariantes que se mantienen en las dos versiones y las reconcilian. En este corto período de tiempo se producen en el proyecto una serie de decisiones que permiten descubrir, tanto en la forma como en el mismo proceso transformador del proyecto, en su obsesivo registro, en los nuevos referentes asumidos y propuestos, la primera visibilidad del cambio del paradigma moderno. Pero este momento germinal que cristaliza el paso a la postmodernidad no es inédito en la historia de la arquitectura americana. Así, el relato abre su ámbito temporal hasta un nuevo período de cincuenta años que arranca en 1893, año de la celebración en Chicago de la Exposición Internacional Colombina. En la White City de Hunt & McKim y del traidor Burham, Louis Sullivan construye su Golden Doorway en el pabellón de los Transportes. Aquella que visitará Adolf Loos antes de volver, renovado, a Viena; la misma que admirará André Bouillet, representante de la Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs de Paris, y que deslumbrará en los museos de toda Europa, de París a Moscú en grandes fotografías y maquetas. Hasta que en Finlandia alguien muestra una de esas fotografías a un joven estudiante de diecinueve años en el Instituto Politécnico. Eliel Saarinen queda fascinado por la poderosa novedad de la imagen. Cuelga la fotografía frente a su tablero de dibujo, consciente de que la Golden Doorway, esa puerta de la aventura y la catarsis que Sullivan acuñaría como distintivo y que resolvería como único elemento complejo sus proyectos más maduros, desprovistos de todo ornamento; la misma que repetirían más tarde, con profundo reconocimiento, Ladovsky, Wright, Scarpa o Moneo, puerta dentro de puerta, fuelle y umbral, contenía, en sus propias palabras emocionadas, todo el futuro de la arquitectura. Desde ahí, pasando por el año 1910, momento de la huida de Wright a La Toscana y el descubrimiento de su arquitectura en Europa, entre otros por un joven Mies van der Rohe, meritorio en el estudio de Peter Behrens, a través del Wasmuth Portfolio; y así como algo después, en 1914, Schindler y en 1923 Neutra, harán el camino inverso, hasta que Mies les siga en 1937, animado por un Philip Johnson que había viajado a Europa en 1930, volviendo a 1945 y el inicio del programa Case Study House en California, hasta 1949, momento de la construcción de la CSH#8, y, por fin, al año 1955, after 5 years of living, en el que Julius Shulman fotografía la casa de Ray y Charles Eames en el prado de Chautauqua sobre las Pacific Palisades de Los Angeles, lanzando sus finas líneas amarillas hasta Alison y Peter Smithson y su tardomoderno heroico, hasta el primer Foster y su poético hightech y hasta el O-riginal Ghery, deconstruyendo el espacio esencial de su casa desde el espacio mismo, abiertas ya las puertas al nuevo siglo. Y en estos cambios de paradigma, desde el rígido eclecticismo de los estilos al lirismo moderno en el gozne secular y de ahí a la frivolidad, ligereza, exhibicionismo y oportunismo cultos del hecho postmoderno, hay algo que se mantiene invariante en los bandazos de la relación del hombre contemporáneo con su entorno. Como la escultura, que según Barnett Newman no es sino aquello contra lo que uno choca cuando retrocede para mirar un cuadro, en estos prístinos lugares, comunes y corrientes, recorrido, puerta, umbral, recinto y vacío, te topas con la arquitectura antes de darte cuenta de que es arquitectura. ABSTRACT As with many other projects, the origin of this doctoral thesis is the result of a chance. A few years ago I found in a bookstore in London, 38 Harmood st., Walden Books, a first edition of the well-known monograph about Mies by Philip Johnson. The tiny book, in fact a catalog of the exhibition that the MoMA of New York devoted to the work of Mies van der Rohe in 1947, ten years after his landing in the United States, has a size of 10 x 7.5 inches, that is, half of Crown American format (20 x 15 inches), equivalent to 508 x 381 mm. In the first printing, published by The Plantin Press, 12,000 copies were released. That same year, produced by Reynal and Hitchcock, both the first English translation of When the cathedrals were white by Le Corbusier and a selection of poems by Lorca were published, seven years after his Poet in New York. Inside the book, the famous drawing from Mies Sketch for a glass house on a hillside c. 1934 appears on page 109, barely a few lines, precise and nuanced though, the house on a hillside that quickly reminds us of the proposals of Eero Saarinen for a house in the air, first in 1941, in Pennsylvania, and later, in 1945, with Charles Eames, in Los Angeles, that would never be built, but in their later alliterations made by Harry Seidler (Julian Rose House, Wahroonga, Sydney, 1949), Philip Johnson (Leonhardt house, Long Island, New York, 1956) or Craig Ellwood (Smith House, Crestwood Hills, 1958; Frank Pierson & Polly House, Malibu, 1962, Chamorro House, Hollywood Hills, 1963, or the Weekend House series, with Gerald Horn, between 1964 and 1970, to the magnificent Art Center College of Design Pasadena, the inhabited bridge, in 1977). The story that gives rise to the text flows in a short amount of time, from the first drawings of the Case Study House No. 8, within the program promoted by John Entenza and his magazine Arts & Architecture in California, made in the study of Saarinen in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, until the project of the Eames house is completed five years after finishing the construction in 1955, in the final version we know, radically different from the initial state, when the couple, Charles and Ray, published the film House after Five Years of Living. The original discussion around this house, or better, about the circumstances, controlled coincidences, regarding its construction, appears when one takes account of those that remain, the invariants, in the two versions, drawn and built, which precisely allow the reconciliation between both projects. In this short period of time a series of decisions made in the transformation process of the project reveal, in the obsessive record made by Charles Eames and in the new proposed references, the first visibility of the changing of the modern paradigm. But this germinal moment that crystallizes the transition to postmodernism is not unprecedented in the history of American architecture. So, the story opens its temporal scope to a fifty-year period that started in 1893, date of the celebration of the Chicago World´s Columbian Exposition. In the White City by Hunt & McKim and Burnham, the traitor, Louis Sullivan builds his Golden Doorway in the Transportation Building. That visited by a renovated Adolf Loos before his coming back to Vienna; the same that André Bouillet, Head of the Union Centrale des Arts Decoratifs in Paris, admired and dazzled in museums all over Europe, from Paris to Moscow, in large photographs and models. Until someone in Finland showed one of those photos to a young nineteen-years-old student at the Polytechnic Institute. Eliel Saarinen became fascinated by the powerful new image: he hanged the picture in front of his drawing board, aware that the Golden Doorway, that door of adventure and catharsis Sullivan coined as distinctive and as a single complex element which would solve their most mature projects, devoid of all ornament; the same that would repeat later, with deep appreciation, Ladovsky, Wright, Scarpa, or Moneo, a door inside a door, a threshold, a gap that contained, in its own moving words, the whole future of architecture. From there, through 1910, when Wright's flight to Tuscany allows Europe to discover his architecture, including a young Mies van der Rohe, meritorious in the studio of Peter Behrens, via the Wasmuth Portfolio; and as a little bit later, in 1914, Schindler and Neutra in 1923, made the travel in opposite direction, until Mies follows them in 1937, led by a Philip Johnson who had traveled to Europe in 1930, we return to 1945 and the beginning of the program Case Study House in California, and from 1949, when construction of the CSH # 8 begins, and finally, to 1955, after five years of living, when Julius Shulman photographs the inside of the house with Ray and Charles Eames, and all their belongins, at the Chautauqua meadows on Pacific Palisades in Los Angeles, launching its fine yellow lines to Alison and Peter Smithson and his heroic late modern, up to the first Foster and his poetic hightech and even the O-riginal Gehry, deconstructing the essential space of his home from the space itself, opening the doors to the new century. And these paradigm shifts, from the hard eclectic styles to modern secular lyricism in the hinge and then overcoming the cultured frivolity, lightness, exhibitionism, and opportunism of the postmodern skeptical focus, something remains intense, invariant in the lurching relationship of contemporary man and his environment. As the sculpture, which according to Barnett Newman is what you bump into when you back up to see a painting, in these pristine, ordinary places, promenade, door, threshold, enclosure and emptiness, you stumble upon the architecture even before realizing that it is architecture.

En un intervalo del límite : una nueva lectura del movimiento moderno desde la realidad virtual de lo ambiguo

Esta tesis doctoral busca estudiar el espacio desde la premisa de que el espacio es, fundamentalmente, lo intermedio. El entre, lo que hay entre las cosas mismas y que les da, precisamente, su definición como cosas en un constante proceso de delimitación. Este entre, lo que hay entre las cosas, no es sin embargo un resto que queda, sino bien al contrario el principio activo que hace que las cosas, desde lo que hay alrededor, se configuren en su ser sensible y puedan percibirse. El entre, lo intermedio, no es así una línea, un corte puro, sino un intervalo, un espacio en sí mismo, un ámbito en que se desarrolla un proceso. Es por tanto un espacio de formación, en el que las cosas aún no son y ya están siendo, un intervalo ambiguo pleno de virtualidades, unas desplegadas otras que permanecen en espera, siempre en movimiento. Es la hipótesis principal de esta tesis que en el llamado Movimiento Moderno en la arquitectura del siglo veinte esta condición ambigua del límite se pone de manifiesto como la raíz articuladora de los cambios espaciales y formales que definen su ser y su estética. Para desarrollar esta hipótesis, se parte de una doble premisa: por una parte, como un entre que es en sí misma, la arquitectura se encuentra delimitada por las disciplinas artísticas contemporáneas, especialmente pintura y escultura y a la vez las delimita. Por tanto, se explorarán una serie de momentos claves en las vanguardias de comienzos del siglo veinte en paralelo a una serie de arquitecturas contemporáneas para estudiar esta doble dialéctica entre límites. Por otra parte, y entendiendo que lo propio de la arquitectura es el espacio, se estudiarán en profundidad las concepciones espaciales que en la física y la estética del finales del siglo diecinueve y principios del veinte se desarrollan, para comprender cómo estas nuevas concepciones, centradas en las ideas de relatividad y de espacio-tiempo como magnitudes interlimitadas, determinan a su vez las concepciones espaciales que se desarrollan simultáneamente en las artes plásticas y en la arquitectura. La tríada espacio/tiempo/luz regirá este recorrido, en un doble camino: a través de la física y la teoría del arte, y a través de la arquitectura y las artes plásticas. Se trata por tanto de incardinar la arquitectura en su contexto artístico y científico, y comprobar cómo la comprensión del espacio como un entre, como un intervalo del límite y no como un absoluto trascendente, se generaliza en dichos ámbitos en una exploración paralela que condiciona los resultados en todos ellos y que define, por tanto, la arquitectura de la modernidad como una arquitectura del entre. El encuadre enmarca como motivo principal el Movimiento Moderno a través de la figura de Le Corbusier. Se muestra el modo en que los recursos y mecanismos empleados provocan el encuentro del espacio indecible a través de la polifonía de las artes. Desde el espaciamiento del límite, su borradura, su ambigüedad, producidos mediante el entrelazamiento de los recursos artísticos, la continuidad de lo lineal, el encabalgamiento, el maridaje, la ambivalencia, la relatividad del color y la luz, el intersticio. Ello se analiza a través de la obra de le Corbusier, destacando la dialéctica entre Le Cheminée y Nature morte aux nombreux objets; Ma maison y el pabellón del Zurichhorn; Unité y L’espace indicible. Aclaradas las premisas fundamentales y las consecuencias inmediatas para la arquitectura del Movimiento Moderno, la cuarta parte y final de la tesis, mucho más breve que las anteriores, expone una primera aproximación a las consecuencias que todo esto ha tenido en un momento liminal también: el comienzo de la postmodernidad. En realidad se trata de una apertura a lo que ha de venir, pues establecida la operatividad de la hipóteisi inicial, se trata aquí solamente de abrir el camino a una interpretación que en realidad escapa del alcance de esta tesis. Así se deja apuntado cómo, a través de la obra de tres arquitectos, teóricos y artistas trabajando en los años setenta y comienzos de los ochenta del pasado siglo, una comprensión más clara de la revolución moderna precipitada por esta nueva comprensión del espacio como límite-entre queda patente. Chamberworks de Daniel Libeskind, Wexner Center for the Visual Arts de Peter Eisenman y Manhattan Transcripts de Bernard Tschumi servirían de privilegiados ejemplo. Como queda patente que las consecuencias de todo ello aún las estamos sintiendo en nuestra contemporaneidad. ABSTRACT This thesis aims to study the space from the premise that space is mainly the in-between. The in-between, what is in-between the things themselves and gives them precisely its definition as things in a constant process of delimitation. This in-between, what is in between things, is not a remnant that remains, but on the contrary it is the active ingredient that produces things from what is around, that configures them in a sensitive to be perceived. The in-between, the intermediate, is not a line, a pure cut, but an interval, a space in itself, an area in which a process is developed. It is therefore a space in development, where things are still not and already been, delimiting an ambiguous range full of potentialities, some present and others that remain only as virtualities. It is the main hypothesis of this thesis that in the so-called Modern Movement in the architecture of the twentieth century this ambiguous boundary condition is revealed as the result of the articulatation of spatial and formal changes. To develop this hypothesis, I posit this double premise: On the one hand, as an in-between which is in itself, architecture is defined by contemporary artistic disciplines, especially painting and sculpture and simultaneously defines them. Therefore, a number of key moments in the avantgarde of the early twentieth century in parallel with a number of contemporary architecture to study this double dialectic between boundaries will be explored. On the other hand, and considering that the “essence” of the architecture is space, I will study in depth the spatial concepts in physics and aesthetics of late-nineteenth century and early twentieth century to understand how these new concepts centered on the ideas of relativity and space-time as interlimited magnitudes in turn determine the spatial conceptions that take place simultaneously in the visual arts and architecture. The space / time / light triad governs this journey in a double way: through physics and theory of art, and through architecture and the arts. The aim is to anchor architecture in its artistic and scientific context, and to see how the understanding of space as an in-between interval and not as an absolute transcendent determines the results in all of them, defining, therefore, the architecture of modernity as an architecture of the in-between. The frame of the study is centered in the modern movement through the figure of Le Corbusier and how rthe different resources and mechanisms employed provoke an unspeakable space of encounter through the polyphony of the arts. From the spacing of the limit, its erasure, its ambiguity, produced by the intertwining of artistic resources to continuity of the linear, the marriage, the ambivalence, the relativity of color and light, the gap. All this is analyzed through the work of Le Corbusier, highlighting the dialectic between Le Cheminée and Nature morte aux nombreux objets, Ma maison and Zürichhorn pavilion, Unité and L’espace indicible. Once the basic premises and immediate consequences for the architecture of the Modern Movement are set, the fourth and final part of the thesis aims to explore the impact that all this has had in another liminal time: the beginning of postmodernism. Of course, this part is shorter, in fact it is more a prospective survey and an opening of possibilities than a truly articulated body of theory, since the conceptual core of this thesis has been developed in the central part. Hence, through the work of three architects, theorists and artists working in the seventies and early eighties of last century, a clearer understanding of the modern revolution precipitated by this new understanding of space as a boundary- between is proposed. Chamberworks by Daniel Libeskind, Wexner Center for the Visual Arts by Peter Eisenman and Manhattan Transcripts by Bernard Tschumi will exemplify this approach. The consequences of all this are still haunting our contemporaneity.

GESTÃO DO CONHECIMENTO: UM ESTUDO SOBRE A RELAÇÃO ENTRE A LIDERANÇA TRANSFORMACIONAL, A CONVERSÃO DO CONHECIMENTO E A EFICÁCIA ORGANIZACIONAL

Este estudo teve como objetivo principal analisar a relação entre a Liderança Transformacional, a Conversão do Conhecimento e a Eficácia Organizacional. Foram considerados como pressupostos teóricos conceitos consolidados sobre os temas desta relação, além de recentes pesquisas já realizadas em outros países e contextos organizacionais. Com base nisto identificou-se potencial estudo de um modelo que relacionasse estes três conceitos. Para tal considera-se que as organizações que buscam atingir Vantagem Competitiva e incorporam a Knowledge-Based View possam conquistar diferenciação frente a seus concorrentes. Nesse contexto o conhecimento ganha maior destaque e papel protagonista nestas organizações. Dessa forma criar conhecimento através de seus colaboradores, passa a ser um dos desafios dessas organizações ao passo que sugere melhoria de seus indicadores Econômicos, Sociais, Sistêmicos e Políticos, o que se define por Eficácia Organizacional. Portanto os modos de conversão do conhecimento nas organizações, demonstram relevância, uma vez que se cria e se converte conhecimentos através da interação entre o conhecimento existente de seus colaboradores. Essa conversão do conhecimento ou modelo SECI possui quatro modos que são a Socialização, Externalização, Combinação e Internalização. Nessa perspectiva a liderança nas organizações apresenta-se como um elemento capaz de influenciar seus colaboradores, propiciando maior dinâmica ao modelo SECI de conversão do conhecimento. Se identifica então na liderança do tipo Transformacional, características que possam influenciar colaboradores e entende-se que esta relação entre a Liderança Transformacional e a Conversão do Conhecimento possa ter influência positiva nos indicadores da Eficácia Organizacional. Dessa forma esta pesquisa buscou analisar um modelo que explorasse essa relação entre a liderança do tipo Transformacional, a Conversão do Conhecimento (SECI) e a Eficácia Organizacional. Esta pesquisa teve o caráter quantitativo com coleta de dados através do método survey, obtendo um total de 230 respondentes válidos de diferentes organizações. O instrumento de coleta de dados foi composto por afirmativas relativas ao modelo de relação pesquisado com um total de 44 itens. O perfil de respondentes concentrou-se entre 30 e 39 anos de idade, com a predominância de organizações privadas e de departamentos de TI/Telecom, Docência e Recursos Humanos respectivamente. O tratamento dos dados foi através da Análise Fatorial Exploratória e Modelagem de Equações Estruturais via Partial Least Square Path Modeling (PLS-PM). Como resultado da análise desta pesquisa, as hipóteses puderam ser confirmadas, concluindo que a Liderança Transformacional apresenta influência positiva nos modos de Conversão do Conhecimento e que; a Conversão do Conhecimento influencia positivamente na Eficácia Organizacional. Ainda, concluiu-se que a percepção entre os respondentes não apresenta resultado diferente sobre o modelo desta pesquisa entre quem possui ou não função de liderança.

Polyploid formation created unique avenues for response to selection in Gossypium (cotton)

A detailed restriction fragment length polymorphism map was used to determine the chromosomal locations and subgenomic distributions of quantitative trait loci (QTLs) segregating in a cross between cultivars of allotetraploid (AADD) Gossypium hirsutum (“Upland” cotton) and Gossypium barbadense (“Sea Island,” “Pima,” or “Egyptian��� cotton) that differ markedly in the quality and quantity of seed epidermal fibers. Most QTLs influencing fiber quality and yield are located on the “D” subgenome, derived from an ancestor that does not produce spinnable fibers. D subgenome QTLs may partly account for the fact that domestication and breeding of tetraploid cottons has resulted in fiber yield and quality levels superior to those achieved by parallel improvement of “A” genome diploid cottons. The merger of two genomes with different evolutionary histories in a common nucleus appears to offer unique avenues for phenotypic response to selection. This may partly compensate for reduction in quantitative variation associated with polyploid formation and be one basis for the prominence of polyploids among extant angiosperms. These findings impel molecular dissection of the roles of divergent subgenomes in quantitative inheritance in many other polyploids and further exploration of both “synthetic” polyploids and exotic diploid genotypes for agriculturally useful variation.

A synthetic cryIC gene, encoding a Bacillus thuringiensis δ-endotoxin, confers Spodoptera resistance in alfalfa and tobacco

Spodoptera species, representing widespread polyphagous insect pests, are resistant to Bacillus thuringiensis δ-endotoxins used thus far as insecticides in transgenic plants. Here we describe the chemical synthesis of a cryIC gene by a novel template directed ligation–PCR method. This simple and economical method to construct large synthetic genes can be used when routine resynthesis of genes is required. Chemically phosphorylated adjacent oligonucleotides of the gene to be synthesized are assembled and ligated on a single-stranded, partially homologous template derived from a wild-type gene (cryIC in our case) by a thermostable Pfu DNA ligase using repeated cycles of melting, annealing, and ligation. The resulting synthetic DNA strands are selectively amplified by PCR with short specific flanking primers that are complementary only to the new synthetic DNA. Optimized expression of the synthetic cryIC gene in alfalfa and tobacco results in the production of 0.01–0.2% of total soluble proteins as CryIC toxin and provides protection against the Egyptian cotton leafworm (Spodoptera littoralis) and the beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua). To facilitate selection and breeding of Spodoptera-resistant plants, the cryIC gene was linked to a pat gene, conferring resistance to the herbicide BASTA.

Opposite Effects on Spodoptera littoralis Larvae of High Expression Level of a Trypsin Proteinase Inhibitor in Transgenic Plants1

This work illustrates potential adverse effects linked with the expression of proteinase inhibitor (PI) in plants used as a strategy to enhance pest resistance. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum L. cv Xanthi) and Arabidopsis [Heynh.] ecotype Wassilewskija) transgenic plants expressing the mustard trypsin PI 2 (MTI-2) at different levels were obtained. First-instar larvae of the Egyptian cotton worm (Spodoptera littoralis Boisd.) were fed on detached leaves of these plants. The high level of MTI-2 expression in leaves had deleterious effects on larvae, causing mortality and decreasing mean larval weight, and was correlated with a decrease in the leaf surface eaten. However, larvae fed leaves from plants expressing MTI-2 at the low expression level did not show increased mortality, but a net gain in weight and a faster development compared with control larvae. The low MTI-2 expression level also resulted in increased leaf damage. These observations are correlated with the differential expression of digestive proteinases in the larval gut; overexpression of existing proteinases on low-MTI-2-expression level plants and induction of new proteinases on high-MTI-2-expression level plants. These results emphasize the critical need for the development of a PI-based defense strategy for plants obtaining the appropriate PI-expression level relative to the pest's sensitivity threshold to that PI.

Reconstrução facial forense: comparação entre tabelas de espessuras de tecidos moles faciais

As Ciências Forenses empregam a técnica de Reconstrução Facial buscando aumentar as possibilidades de reconhecimento humano. Após análise antropológica, a face é esculpida sobre o crânio esqueletizado e divulgada na mídia. Existem várias metodologias para a modelagem do rosto e das características da face, bem como vários dados de espessuras de tecidos moles que auxiliam no contorno facial. Com o intuito de investigar se existe uma metodologia que favoreça mais reconhecimentos e que permita uma maior semelhança com o indivíduo, este trabalho buscou comparar reconstruções faciais manuais feitas com duas abordagens para o preenchimento dos tecidos moles (métodos Americano e de Manchester) e para a predição dos olhos, nariz, boca e orelhas. Também buscou comparar reconstruções realizadas com quatro tabelas de espessuras de tecidos moles, desenvolvidas para brasileiros por estudos prévios, observando a possibilidade de unir esses dados para auxiliar na reconstrução. Um quarto objetivo foi averiguar se existe influência do sexo e do conhecimento anatômico ou forense na frequência de reconhecimentos. O estudo foi dividido em duas fases. Na primeira, duas reconstruções foram realizadas para dois indivíduos alvos (um homem e uma mulher) com os métodos Americano e de Manchester, aplicando dois guias para olhos, nariz, boca e orelhas. As reconstruções foram avaliadas por quarenta indivíduos (homens e mulheres, divididos em 4 grupos - alunos de graduação em Odontologia que não passaram pela disciplina de Odontologia Legal, alunos de graduação em Odontologia que passaram pela disciplina, especialistas em Odontologia Legal e indivíduos que não possuíam conhecimento de anatomia humana) por meio dos testes de reconhecimento e semelhança. Para o alvo feminino, as frequências de reconhecimentos foram 20% e 10% para os métodos Americano e de Manchester, respectivamente; para o alvo masculino, as frequências foram 35% e 17,5%. Em relação à semelhança, as medianas foram menores que 3 (em uma escala de 1 a 5); entretanto, foi verificada uma exceção para a escultura feita com o método Americano para o alvo masculino, a qual apresentou mediana 3. Na segunda fase, reconstruções faciais para quatro alvos (dois homens e duas mulheres) foram obtidas com o método Americano, considerando as quatro tabelas de espessuras de tecidos moles para brasileiros. Dezesseis reconstruções foram avaliadas por cento e vinte indivíduos, também pelos testes de reconhecimento e semelhança. Assim como na fase I, foram considerados o sexo e o grupo dos avaliadores. Para o alvo 1, as proporções de acertos são significativamente maiores para reconstruções feitas com as tabelas de cadáveres (44% e 38%) em relação às com os dados de exames de imagem. Para o alvo 4, as proporções de acertos com os dados de cadáveres (Tedeschi-Oliveira et al.) e com os de ressonância magnética foram significativamente maiores comparados às reconstruções com dados de tomografias computadorizadas. Em relação à semelhança, somente o alvo 1 mostrou diferenças significativas de frequências de semelhança leve entre reconstruções. Além disso, não houve influência nem do sexo, nem do conhecimento de anatomia nas frequências de reconhecimentos corretos. Espera-se que a tabela proposta possa ser empregada para a população brasileira.

Multiple Perspectives on Academic Service-Learning Partnerships at the American University in Cairo: A Mixed Method Study

This mixed method study aimed to redress the gap in the literature on academic service-learning partnerships, especially in Eastern settings. It utilized Enos and Morton's (2003) theoretical framework to explore these partnerships at the American University in Cairo (AUC). Seventy-nine community partners, administrators, faculty members, and students from a diverse range of age, citizenship, racial, educational, and professional backgrounds participated in the study. Qualitative interviews were conducted with members of these four groups, and a survey with both close-ended and open-ended questions administered to students yielded 61 responses. Qualitative analyses revealed that the primary motivators for partners' engagement in service-learning partnerships included contributing to the community, enhancing students' learning and growth, and achieving the civic mission of the University. These partnerships were characterized by short-term relationships with partners' aspiring to progress toward long-term commitments. The challenges to these partnerships included issues pertaining to the institution, partnering organizations, culture, politics, pedagogy, students, and faculty members. Key strategies for improving these partnerships included institutionalizing service-learning in the University and cultivating an institutional culture supportive of community engagement. Quantitative analyses showed statistically significant relationships between students' scores on the Community Awareness and Interpersonal Effectiveness scales and their overall participation in community service activities inside and outside the classroom, as well as a statistically significant difference between their scores on the Community Awareness scale and department offering service-learning courses. The study's outcomes underscore the role of the local culture in shaping service-learning partnerships, as well as the role of both curricular and extracurricular activities in boosting students' awareness of their community and interpersonal effectiveness. Cultivating a culture of community engagement and building support mechanisms for engaged scholarship are among the critical steps required by public policy-makers in Egypt to promote service-learning in Egyptian higher education. Institutionalizing service-learning partnerships at AUC and enhancing the visibility of these partnerships on campus and in the community are essential to the future growth of these collaborations. Future studies should explore factors affecting community partners' satisfaction with these partnerships, top-down and bottom-up support to service-learning, the value of reflection to faculty members, and the influence of students' economic backgrounds on their involvement in service-learning partnerships.

Issues of patronage : the Denver Civic Center sculptures

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