Salt content of processed foods available in the Portuguese market

Evidence suggests that current levels of salt consumption across Europe are linked with several chronic diseases. In recent decades, high blood pressure has increased, together with the consumption of processed foods. World Health Organization (WHO) recommends a salt intake of less than 5 g/day for the prevention of cardiovascular disease. The aim of this study was to evaluate the salt content of processed foods available in the Portuguese market and to compare the determined values with the recommended daily intake established by WHO. Categories of processed foods that contribute to a higher intake of salt were identified: pastry, bakery, fast-food, snacks, ready-to-eat meals, nuts, seeds, soups, cereals, sauces, patties, among others. Between 2013 and 2015, 267 processed food samples were acquired in food chains and restaurants from Lisbon region (Portugal) and the salt content was quantified using Charpentier-Volhard method. High amounts of salt were quantified in the analysed processed foods, namely snacks, fast-food, patties, meals and bakery products. If we consider one portion of a curd cheese pie (193 g), the intake of salt can reach 45% of the recommended value. For snacks, regular portion size is 35 g. One portion of a salty snack can contribute with 31% of the salt recommended daily intake. Up to now food industry has developed efforts to decrease the salt content of some food products, namely bread. However, there still exist foods with high salt content and from a nutritional point of view this should be a priority area of intervention. The obtained results are an effective assessment of current salt content in foods which will be important for further reformulation strategies and to monitor progress in the next years.

Associations between liking for fat, sweet or salt and obesity risk in French adults

International audience

Deconjugated Bile Salts Produced by Extracellular Bile-Salt Hydrolase-Like Activities from the Probiotic Lactobacillus johnsonii La1 Inhibit Giardia duodenalis In vitro Growth

Giardiasis, currently considered a neglected disease, is caused by the intestinal protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis and is widely spread in human as well as domestic and wild animals. The lack of appropriate medications and the spread of resistant parasite strains urgently call for the development of novel therapeutic strategies. Host microbiota or certain probiotic strains have the capacity to provide some protection against giardiasis. By combining biological and biochemical approaches, we have been able to decipher a molecular mechanism used by the probiotic strain Lactobacillus johnsonii La1 to prevent Giardia growth in vitro. We provide evidence that the supernatant of this strain contains active principle(s) not directly toxic to Giardia but able to convert non-toxic components of bile into components highly toxic to Giardia. By using bile acid profiling, these components were identified as deconjugated bile-salts. A bacterial bile-salt-hydrolase of commercial origin was able to mimic the properties of the supernatant. Mass spectrometric analysis of the bacterial supernatant identified two of the three bile-salt-hydrolases encoded in the genome of this probiotic strain. These observations document a possible mechanism by which L. johnsonii La1, by secreting, or releasing BSH-like activity(ies) in the vicinity of replicating Giardia in an environment where bile is present and abundant, can fight this parasite. This discovery has both fundamental and applied outcomes to fight giardiasis, based on local delivery of deconjugated bile salts, enzyme deconjugation of bile components, or natural or recombinant probiotic strains that secrete or release such deconjugating activities in a compartment where both bile salts and Giardia are present.

Plan of a tract of land (marked in the General Plan no. 7), containing in the whole 5000 acres, & divided into 20 plantations of 250 acres each, situate on a left hand branch of Elk River, & on the head waters of Salt Lick Creek, in Harrison County, State of Virginia /

Covers part of Harrison County (W.Va.)

New insights into plant salt acclimation: the roles of vesicle trafficking and reactive oxygen species signalling in mitochondria and the endomembrane system

In this study, we investigated the cellular and molecular mechanisms that regulate salt acclimation. The main objective was to obtain new insights into the molecular mechanisms that control salt acclimation. Therefore, we carried out a multidisciplinary study using proteomic, transcriptomic, subcellular and physiological techniques. We obtained a Nicotiana tabacum BY-2 cell line acclimated to be grown at 258 mM NaCl as a model for this study. The proteomic and transcriptomic data indicate that the molecular response to stress (chaperones, defence proteins, etc.) is highly induced in these salt-acclimated cells. The subcellular results show that salt induces sodium compartmentalization in the cell vacuoles and seems to be mediated by vesicle trafficking in tobacco salt-acclimated cells. Our results demonstrate that abscisic acid (ABA) and proline metabolism are crucial in the cellular signalling of salt acclimation, probably regulating reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the mitochondria. ROS may act as a retrograde signal, regulating the cell response. The network of endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus is highly altered in salt-acclimated cells. The molecular and subcellular analysis suggests that the unfolded protein response is induced in salt-acclimated cells. Finally, we propose that this mechanism may mediate cell death in salt-acclimated cells.

Salt as a stress response mitigator of matrinxa, Brycon cephalus (Gunther), during transport

The present study evaluated the physiological responses of matrinxa, Brycon cephalus (Gunther), submitted to transport stress under the influence of sodium chloride, Different salt concentrations (0.0%, 0.1%, 0.3% and 0.6%) were added to four 200-L plastic tanks. Each tank was stocked with 30 fish (mean weight 1.0 +/- 0.2 kg) and transported for 4 h. Blood was sampled prior to transport and immediately after and 24 and 96 h after transport. Plasma cortisol and glucose and serum sodium and potassium, plasma chloride and ammonia were analysed, Changes in plasma cortisol were observed immediately after transportation, except in fish transported in 0.3% and 0.6% salt. Twenty-four hours later, this hormone had returned to its initial level in all fish. Blood glucose was not changed in fish treated with 0.6% salt immediately after transport, and returned to the initial level within 96 h after the other treatments. All treatments resulted in lower levels of plasma chloride after transport, except for fish treated with 0.6% salt, with fish treated with 0.0% and 0.3% salt recovering 24 h later, Serum sodium decreased immediately after transport only in the control fish, returning to the initial level 24 h later, the results indicate that treatment with 0.6% NaCl reduces most of the physiological responses of matrinxa to the stress of transport.

Thermodynamic calculations for the salt crystallisation damage in porous built heritage using PHREEQC

This work considers the crystallisation mechanisms of the most common and aggressive salts that generate stress in porous building stones as a result of changing ambient conditions. These mechanisms include the salt crystallisation that result from decreasing relative humidity and changes in temperature and, in hydrated salts, the dissolution of the lower hydrated form and the subsequent precipitation of the hydrated salt. We propose a new methodology for thermodynamic calculations using PHREEQC that includes these crystallisation mechanisms. This approach permits the calculation of the equilibrium relative humidity and the parameterization of the critical relative humidity and crystallisation pressures for the dissolution–precipitation transitions. The influence of other salts on the effectives of salt crystallisation and chemical weathering is also assessed. We review the sodium and magnesium sulphate and sodium chloride systems, in both single and multicomponent solutions, and they are compared to the sodium carbonate and calcium carbonate systems. The variation of crystallisation pressure, the formation of new minerals and the chemical dissolution by the presence of other salts is also evaluated. Results for hydrated salt systems show that high crystallisation pressures are possible as lower hydrated salts dissolve and more hydrated salts precipitate. High stresses may be also produced by decreasing temperature, although it requires that porous materials are wet for long periods of time. The presence of other salts changes the temperature and relative humidity of salt transitions that generates stress rather than reducing the pressure of crystallisation, if any salt has previously precipitated. Several practical conclusions derive from proposed methodology and provide conservators and architects with information on the potential weathering activity of soluble salts. Furthermore, the model calculations might be coupled with projections of future climate to give as improved understanding of the likely changes in the frequency of phase transitions in salts within porous stone.

Effects of salt and fat combinations on taste preference and perception

Fat and salt are a common and attractive combination in food and overconsumption of either is associated with negative health outcomes. The major aim was to investigate contributions and interactions of salt and fat on taste pleasantness and perception. The minor aim was to investigate individual fat taste sensitivity (detection threshold of oleic acid [C18:1]) on pleasantness for fat. In a complete factorial design, 49 participants (18-54 years, 12 males) tasted tomato soups with 4 different fat concentrations (0-20%) and 5 different salt concentrations (0.04-2.0%). The preferred concentration and the discrimination ability for both fat and salt were determined by ranking tests. Results show that salt and fat affected pleasantness separately (P < 0.01), with salt having the strongest effect. Fat concentrations 0%, 5%, and 10% did not differ in pleasantness, whereas 20% was less pleasant (P < 0.05). There were no interactions for fat and salt on pleasantness or saltiness and fattiness intensity. Fat taste sensitive participants preferred lower fat concentrations than less sensitive participants (P = 0.008). In conclusion, the strong effect of salt on pleasantness in this study suggests that salt, rather than fat, play a major role in the attraction to savory fatty foods.

Synergistic corrosion inhibition of mild steel in aqueous chloride solutions by an imidazolinium carboxylate salt

Mild steel infrastructure is constantly under corrosive attack in most environmental and industrial conditions. There is an ongoing search for environmentally friendly, highly effective inhibitor compounds that can provide a protective action in situations ranging from the marine environment to oil and gas pipelines. In this work an organic salt comprising a protic imidazolinium cation and a 4-hydroxycinnamate anion has been shown to produce a synergistic corrosion inhibition effect for mild steel in 0.01 M NaCl aqueous solutions under acidic, neutral, and basic conditions; an important and unusual phenomenon for one compound to support inhibition across a range of pH conditions. Significantly, the individual components of this compound do not inhibit as effectively at equivalent concentrations, particularly at pH 2. Immersion studies show the efficacy of these inhibitors in stifling corrosion as observed from optical, SEM, and profilometry experiments. The mechanism of inhibition appears to be dominated by anodic behavior where dissolution of the steel, and in particular the pitting process, is stifled. FTIR spectroscopy provides confirmation of a protective interfacial layer, with the observation of interactions between the steel surface and 4-hydroxycinnamate.

Effects of a community-based salt reduction program in a regional Australian population

BACKGROUND: Salt reduction is a public health priority but there are few studies testing the efficacy of plausible salt reduction programs.

METHODS: A multi-faceted, community-based salt reduction program using the Communication for Behavioral Impact framework was implemented in Lithgow, Australia. Single 24-h urine samples were obtained from 419 individuals at baseline (2011) and from 572 at follow-up (2014). Information about knowledge and behaviors relating to salt was also collected.

RESULTS: Survey participants were on average 56 years old and 58 % female. Mean salt intake estimated from 24-h urine samples fell from 8.8 g/day (SD = 3.6 g/day) in 2011 to 8.0 (3.6) g/day in 2014 (-0.80, 95 % confidence interval -1.2 to -0.3;p < 0.001). There were significant increases in the proportion of participants that knew the recommended upper limit of salt intake (18 % vs. 29 %; p < 0.001), knew the importance of salt reduction (64 % vs. 78 %; p < 0.001) and reported changing their behaviors to reduce their salt intake by using spices (5 % vs. 28 %; p < 0.001) and avoiding eating out (21 % vs. 34 %; p < 0.001). However, the proportions that checked food labels (30 % vs. 25 %; p = 0.02) fell, as did the numbers avoiding processed foods (44 % vs. 35 %; p = 0.006). Twenty-six percent reported using salt substitute at the end of the intervention period and 90 % had heard about the program. Findings were robust to multivariable adjustment.

CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of this multi-faceted community-based program was associated with a ~10 % reduction in salt consumption in an Australian regional town. These findings highlight the potential of well-designed health promotion programs to compliment other population-based strategies to bring about much-needed reductions in salt consumption.

Salt intakes, knowledge, and behavior in Samoa: monitoring salt-consumption patterns through the World Health Organization's Surveillance of Noncommunicable Disease Risk Factors (STEPS)

This project measured population salt intake in Samoa by integrating urinary sodium analysis into the World Health Organization's (WHO's) STEPwise approach to surveillance of noncommunicable disease risk factors (STEPS). A subsample of the Samoan Ministry of Health's 2013 STEPS Survey collected 24-hour and spot urine samples and completed questions on salt-related behaviors. Complete urine samples were available for 293 participants. Overall, weighted mean population 24-hour urine excretion of salt was 7.09 g (standard error 0.19) to 7.63 g (standard error 0.27) for men and 6.39 g (standard error 0.14) for women (P=.0014). Salt intake increased with body mass index (P=.0004), and people who added salt at the table had 1.5 g higher salt intakes than those who did not add salt (P=.0422). A total of 70% of the population had urinary excretion values above the 5 g/d cutoff recommended by the WHO. A reduction of 30% (2 g) would reduce average population salt intake to 5 g/d, in line with WHO recommendations. While challenging, integration of salt monitoring into STEPS provides clear logistical and cost benefits and the lessons communicated here can help inform future programs.

Salt promotes passive overconsumption of dietary fat in humans

BACKGROUND: Excess fat consumption has been linked to the development of obesity. Fat and salt are a common and appetitive combination in food; however, the effect of either on food intake is unclear. Fat taste sensitivity has been negatively associated with dietary fat intake, but how fat taste sensitivity influences the intake of fat within a meal has, to our knowledge, not yet been investigated.

OBJECTIVES: Our objectives were, first, to investigate the effects of both fat and salt on ad libitum food intake and, second, to investigate the effects of fat taste sensitivity on satiation responses to fat and whether this was affected by salt.

METHODS: Forty-eight healthy adults [16 men and 32 women, aged 18-54 y, body mass index (kg/m(2)): 17.8-34.4] were recruited and their fat taste sensitivity was measured by determination of the detection threshold of oleic acid (18:1n-6). In a randomized 2 × 2 crossover design, participants attended 4 lunchtime sessions after a standardized breakfast. Meals consisted of elbow macaroni (56%) with sauce (44%); sauces were manipulated to be1) low-fat (0.02% fat, wt:wt)/low-salt (0.06% NaCl, wt:wt),2) low-fat/high-salt (0.5% NaCl, wt:wt),3) high-fat (34% fat, wt:/wt)/low-salt, or4) high-fat/high-salt. Ad libitum intake (primary outcome) and eating rate, pleasantness, and subjective ratings of hunger and fullness (secondary outcomes) were measured.

RESULTS: Salt increased food and energy intakes by 11%, independent of fat concentration (P= 0.022). There was no effect of fat on food intake (P= 0.6), but high-fat meals increased energy intake by 60% (P< 0.001). A sex × fat interaction was found (P= 0.006), with women consuming 15% less by weight of the high-fat meals than the low-fat meals. Fat taste sensitivity was negatively associated with the intake of high-fat meals but only in the presence of low salt (fat taste × salt interaction on delta intake of high-fat - low-fat meals;P= 0.012).

CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that salt promotes passive overconsumption of energy in adults and that salt may override fat-mediated satiation in individuals who are sensitive to the taste of fat.

Isolation and phylogenetic identification of halotolerant/halophilic bacteria from the salt mines of Karak, Pakistan

Extreme environments like salt mines are inhabited by a variety of bacteria that are well-adapted to such environments. The bacterial populations provide economic benefits in terms of enzymes synthesis. The salt mines of Karak region in Pakistan are extremely saline and the microbial communities found here have not yet been explored. In the present study, 57 halotolerant/halophilic bacterial strains were isolated from the salt mines of Karak. These strains were grown in media with 0-35% NaCl concentration. The morphological and physiological characteristics of the isolated strains were studied to optimize the growth conditions and to classify the isolated bacterial strains into slightly halotolerant/halophilic, moderately halophilic and extreme halophilic. The phylogenetic analyses inferred from 16S rRNA gene sequence of the isolated strains demonstrated that the major population were closely related to species belonging to Planococcus, Jeotgalicoccus, Staphylococcus, Halobacillus, Halomonas, Brevibacterium, Gracilibacillus, Kocuria, Salinivibrio, Salinicoccus, Oceanobacillus and Bacillus genera. Results showed that the salt mines of Karak region are rich in halotolerant/halophilic bacterial population with diverse bacterial communities, which may be utilized in various industrial applications after proper screening and identification.

BARIUM CONCENTRATIONS IN ROCK SALT BY LASER INDUCED BREAKDOWN SPECTROSCOPY

Time-REsolved Laser Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (TRELIBS) was used to determine the elemental concentration of barium in Texas Dome rock salt. TRELIBS allows for an efficient and in situ concentration analysis technique that detects a wide range of elements with no sample preparation. TRELIBS measurements were made in the 545nm to 594nm wavelength range. The proximity of a strong barium emission line (553.5481 nm) to the sodium doublet (588.9950 nm and 589.5924 nm) allowed for measurement within a single frame of the spectrograph. This barium emission line was compared to the sodium doublet for relative intensity. A homemade calibration sample containing known amounts of barium and sodium was used to determine the relative concentrations. By approximating the sodium content in the rock salt as 50%, we determined the absolute concentration of barium in the salt to be (0.13±0.03)%.