Neuronal activity in the hub of extrasynaptic Schwann cell-axon interactions.

The integrity and function of neurons depend on their continuous interactions with glial cells. In the peripheral nervous system glial functions are exerted by Schwann cells (SCs). SCs sense synaptic and extrasynaptic manifestations of action potential propagation and adapt their physiology to support neuronal activity. We review here existing literature data on extrasynaptic bidirectional axon-SC communication, focusing particularly on neuronal activity implications. To shed light on underlying mechanisms, we conduct a thorough analysis of microarray data from SC-rich mouse sciatic nerve at different developmental stages and in neuropathic models. We identify molecules that are potentially involved in SC detection of neuronal activity signals inducing subsequent glial responses. We further suggest that alterations in the activity-dependent axon-SC crosstalk impact on peripheral neuropathies. Together with previously reported data, these observations open new perspectives for deciphering glial mechanisms of neuronal function support.

Regulation of GABA(A) and glutamate receptor expression, synaptic facilitation and long-term potentiation in the hippocampus of prion mutant mice

Background: Prionopathies are characterized by spongiform brain degeneration, myoclonia, dementia, and periodic electroencephalographic (EEG) disturbances. The hallmark of prioniopathies is the presence of an abnormal conformational isoform (PrP(sc)) of the natural cellular prion protein (PrP(c)) encoded by the Prnp gene. Although several roles have been attributed to PrP(c), its putative functions in neuronal excitability are unknown. Although early studies of the behavior of Prnp knockout mice described minor changes, later studies report altered behavior. To date, most functional PrP(c) studies on synaptic plasticity have been performed in vitro. To our knowledge, only one electrophysiological study has been performed in vivo in anesthetized mice, by Curtis and coworkers. They reported no significant differences in paired-pulse facilitation or LTP in the CA1 region after Schaffer collateral/commissural pathway stimulation. Principal Findings: Here we explore the role of PrP(c) expression in neurotransmission and neural excitability using wild-type, Prnp -/- and PrP(c)-overexpressing mice (Tg20 strain). By correlating histopathology with electrophysiology in living behaving mice, we demonstrate that both Prnp -/- mice but, more relevantly Tg20 mice show increased susceptibility to KA, leading to significant cell death in the hippocampus. This finding correlates with enhanced synaptic facilitation in paired-pulse experiments and hippocampal LTP in living behaving mutant mice. Gene expression profiling using Illumina microarrays and Ingenuity pathways analysis showed that 129 genes involved in canonical pathways such as Ubiquitination or Neurotransmission were co-regulated in Prnp -/- and Tg20 mice. Lastly, RT-qPCR of neurotransmission-related genes indicated that subunits of GABA(A) and AMPA-kainate receptors are co-regulated in both Prnp -/- and Tg20 mice. Conclusions/Significance: Present results demonstrate that PrP(c) is necessary for the proper homeostatic functioning of hippocampal circuits, because of its relationships with GABA(A) and AMPA-Kainate neurotransmission. New PrP(c) functions have recently been described, which point to PrP(c) as a target for putative therapies in Alzheimer's disease. However, our results indicate that a "gain of function" strategy in Alzheimer's disease, or a "loss of function" in prionopathies, may impair PrP(c) function, with devastating effects. In conclusion, we believe that present data should be taken into account in the development of future therapies.

Nogo, myelin and axonal regeneration

Adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS) axons have very limited capacity of regrowth after injury. In recent years, advances in the field of axonal regeneration have proved that neurons do not regenerate, mainly because of the presence of inhibitory molecules. Myelin-associated proteins limit axonal outgrowth and their blockage improves the regeneration of damaged fiber tracts. Three of these proteins, Nogo, MAG and OMgp, share a common neuronal receptor (NgR), and together represent one of the main hindrances to neuronal regeneration. The recent molecular cloning of Nogo and its receptors opened a new door to the study of axon regeneration. However, many of the elements involved in the myelin inhibitory pathway are still unknown, and the preliminary experiments with knockout mice are rather contradictory. Because of this complexity, Nogo and NgR need to be characterized before precise strategies to promote axon regeneration in the CNS can be designed.

Conditional BDNF release under pathological conditions improves Huntington's disease pathology by delaying neuronal dysfunction

Background Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) is the main candidate for neuroprotective therapy for Huntington's disease (HD), but its conditional administration is one of its most challenging problems. Results Here we used transgenic mice that over-express BDNF under the control of the Glial Fibrillary Acidic Protein (GFAP) promoter (pGFAP-BDNF mice) to test whether up-regulation and release of BDNF, dependent on astrogliosis, could be protective in HD. Thus, we cross-mated pGFAP-BDNF mice with R6/2 mice to generate a double-mutant mouse with mutant huntingtin protein and with a conditional over-expression of BDNF, only under pathological conditions. In these R6/2:pGFAP-BDNF animals, the decrease in striatal BDNF levels induced by mutant huntingtin was prevented in comparison to R6/2 animals at 12 weeks of age. The recovery of the neurotrophin levels in R6/2:pGFAP-BDNF mice correlated with an improvement in several motor coordination tasks and with a significant delay in anxiety and clasping alterations. Therefore, we next examined a possible improvement in cortico-striatal connectivity in R62:pGFAP-BDNF mice. Interestingly, we found that the over-expression of BDNF prevented the decrease of cortico-striatal presynaptic (VGLUT1) and postsynaptic (PSD-95) markers in the R6/2:pGFAP-BDNF striatum. Electrophysiological studies also showed that basal synaptic transmission and synaptic fatigue both improved in R6/2:pGAP-BDNF mice. Conclusions These results indicate that the conditional administration of BDNF under the GFAP promoter could become a therapeutic strategy for HD due to its positive effects on synaptic plasticity.

PPARs: nuclear receptors for fatty acids, eicosanoids, and xenobiotics.

The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors have enjoyed the spotlight for many reasons. These transcription factors are ligand-inducible nuclear receptors that modulate gene expression in response to a broad spectrum of compounds. The recognition that PPARs are indeed nuclear receptors for polyunsaturated fatty acids, some eicosanoids and also lipid-lowering and antidiabetic drugs, has opened many exciting avenues of research and drug discovery. Recent studies on the PPAR function have extended the role of these transcription factors beyond energy homeostasis to master gene in adipogenesis and also determinants in inflammation control. While rapid advances have been made, it is clear that we are far from a global understanding of the mechanisms and functions of PPARs.

Discovery of novel arenavirus receptors and entry factors

Arenaviruses are enveloped negative-strand RNA viruses that contain a bi-segmented genome. They are rodent-borne pathogens endemic to the Americas and Africa, with the exception of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) that is world-wide distributed. The arenaviruses include numerous important human pathogens including the Old World arenavirus Lassa virus (LASV), the causative agent of a severe viral hemorrhagic fever in humans with several hundred thousand infections per year in Africa and thousands of deaths. Viruses are obligatory intracellular parasites, strictly depending on cellular processes and factors to complete their replication cycle. The binding of a virus to target cells is the first step of every viral infection, and is mainly mediated by viral proteins that can directly engage cellular receptors, providing a key determinant for viral tropism. This early step of infection represents a promising target to block the pathogen before it can take control over the host cell. Old World arenaviruses, such as LASV and LCMV, bind to host cells via attachment to their main receptor, dystroglycan (DG), an ubiquitous receptor for extracellular matrix proteins. The engagement of DG by LASV results in a fast internalization and transfer the virus to late endosomal compartment suggesting that the virus binding to DG causes marked changes in the dynamics of the receptor. These events could result in the clustering of the receptor and subsequent induction of signaling that could be modulated by the virus. Recently, numerous findings also suggest the presence of alternative receptor(s) for LASV in absence of the main DG receptor. In my first project, I was interested to investigate the effects of virus-receptor binding on the tyrosine phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain of DG and to test if this post-translational modification was crucial for the internalization of the LASV-receptor complex. We found that engagement of cellular DG by a recombinant LCMV expressing the envelope GP of LASV in human epithelial cells induced tyrosine phosphorylation of the cytoplasmic domain of DG. LASV GP binding to DG further resulted in dissociation of the adapter protein utrophin from virus-bound DG. Virus-induced dissociation of utrophin and consequent virus internalization were affected by the broadly specific tyrosine kinase inhibitor genistein. We speculate that the detachment of virus- bound DG from the actin-based cytoskeleton following DG phosphorylation may facilitate subsequent endocytosis of the virus-receptor complex. In the second project, I was interested to characterize the newly indentified LASV alternative receptor Axl in the context of productive arenavirus infection. In a first step, we demonstrated that Axl supports productive infection by rLCMV-LASVGP in a DG-independent manner. In line with previous studies, cell entry of rLCMV-LASVGP via Axl was less efficient when compared to functional DG. Interestingly, Axl-mediated infection showed rapid kinetics similar to DG-dependent entry. Using a panel of inhibitors, we found that Axl-mediated cell entry of rLCMV-LASVGP involved a clathrin-independent pathway that critically depended on actin and dynamin and was sensitive to EIPA but not to PAK inhibitors, compatible with a macropinocytosis-like mechanism of entry. In a next step, we aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism by which rLCMV-LASVGP recognizes Axl. Phosphatidylserine (PS) is the natural ligand of Axl via the adaptor protein Gas6. We detected the presence of PS in the envelope of Old World arenaviruses, suggesting that PS could mediate Axl-virus binding, in a mechanism of apoptotic mimicry already described for other viruses. Whether envelope PS and/or the GP of LASV plays any role in virus entry via Axl is still an open question. The molecular mechanisms underlying host cell-virus interaction are of particular interest to answer basic scientific questions as well as to apply key findings to translational research. Understanding pathogen induced-signaling and its link to invasion of the host cell is of great importance to develop drugs for therapeutic intervention against highly pathogenic viruses like LASV. - Les Arenavirus sont des virus enveloppés à ARN négatifs organisés sous forme de génome bisegmenté. Ils sont véhiculés par les rongeurs et se retrouvent de manière endémique aux Amériques et en Afrique avec l'exception du virus de la chorioméningite lymphocytaire (LCMV) qui lui est distribué mondialement. De nombreux pathogènes humains font parti de la famille des Arenavirus dont le virus de l'Ancien Monde Lassa (LASV), un agent responsable de fièvres hémorragiques sévères chez les humains. Le virus de Lassa cause plusieurs centaines de milliers d'infections par année en Afrique ainsi que des milliers de morts. De manière générale, les virus sont des parasites intracellulaires obligatoires qui dépendent strictement de processus et facteurs cellulaires pour clore leur cycle de réplication. L'attachement d'un virus à sa cellule cible représente la première étape de chaque infection virale et est principalement dirigée par des protéines virales qui interagissent directement avec leur récepteurs cellulaires respectifs fournissant ainsi un indicateur déterminant pour le tropisme d'un virus. Cette première étape de l'infection représente aussi une cible prometteuse pour bloquer le pathogène avant qu'il ne puisse prendre le contrôle de la cellule. Les Arenavirus de l'Ancien Monde comme LASV et LCMV s'attachent à la cellule hôte en se liant à leur récepteur principal, le dystroglycan (DG), un récepteur ubiquitaire pour les protéines de la matrice extracellulaire. La liaison du DG par LASV résulte en une rapide internalisation transférant le virus aux endosomes tardifs suggérant ainsi que l'attachement du virus au DG peut provoquer des changements marqués dans la dynamique moléculaire du récepteur. Ces événements sont susceptibles d'induire un regroupement du récepteur à la surface cellulaire, ainsi qu'une induction subséquente qui pourrait être, par la suite, modulée par le virus. Récemment, plusieurs découvertes suggèrent aussi la présence d'un récepteur alternatif pour LASV en l'absence du récepteur principal, le DG. Concernant mon premier projet, j'étais intéressée à étudier les effets de la liaison virus- récepteur sur la phosphorylation des acides aminés tyrosines se trouvant dans la partie cytoplasmique du DG, le but étant de tester si cette modification post-translationnelle était cruciale pour Γ internalisation du complexe LASV-DG récepteur. Nous avons découvert que l'engagement du récepteur DG par le virus recombinant LCMV, exprimant la glycoprotéine de LASV, dans des cellules épithéliales humaines induit une phosphorylation de résidu(s) tyrosine se situant dans le domaine cytoplasmique du DG. La liaison de la glycoprotéine de LASV au DG induit par la suite la dissociation de la protéine adaptatrice utrophine du complexe virus-DG récepteur. Nous avons observé que cette dissociation de l'utrophine, induite par le virus, ainsi que son internalisation, sont affectées par l'inhibiteur à large spectre des tyrosines kinases, la génistéine. Nous avons donc supposé que le détachement du virus, lié au récepteur DG, du cytosquelette d'actine suite à la phosphorylation du DG faciliterait l'endocytose subséquente du complexe virus-récepteur. Dans le second projet, j'étais intéressée à caractériser le récepteur alternatif Axl qui a été récemment identifié dans le contexte de l'infection productive des Arenavirus. Dans un premier temps, nous avons démontré que le récepteur alternatif Axl permet l'infection des cellules par le virus LCMV recombinant LASV indépendamment du récepteur DG. Conformément aux études publiées précédemment, nous avons pu observer que l'entrée du virus recombinant LASV via Axl est moins efficace que via le récepteur principal DG. De façon intéressante, nous avons aussi remarqué que l'infection autorisée par Axl manifeste une cinétique virale d'entrée similaire à celle observée avec le récepteur DG. Utilisant un éventail de différents inhibiteurs, nous avons trouvé que l'entrée du virus recombinant rLCMV-LASVGP via Axl implique une voie d'entrée indépendante de la clathrine et dépendant de manière critique de l'actine et de la dynamine. Cette nouvelle voie d'entrée est aussi sensible à l'EIPA contrairement aux inhibiteurs PAK indiquant un mécanisme d'entrée compatible avec un mécanisme de macropinocytose. L'étape suivante du projet a été d'investiguer le mécanisme moléculaire par lequel le virus recombinant rLCMV-LASVGP reconnaît le récepteur alternatif Axl. La phosphatidylsérine (PS) se trouve être un ligand naturel pour Axl via la protéine adaptatrice Gas6. Nous avons détecté la présence de PS dans l'enveloppe des Arenavirus du Vieux Monde suggérant que la PS pourrait médier la liaison du virus à Axl dans un mécanisme de mimétisme apoptotique déjà observé et décrit pour d'autres virus. Cependant, il reste encore à déterminer qui de la PS ou de la glycoprotéine de l'enveloppe virale intervient dans le processus d'entrée de LASV via le récepteur alternatif Axl. Les mécanismes moléculaires à la base de l'interaction entre virus et cellule hôte sont d'intérêts particuliers pour répondre aux questions scientifiques de base ainsi que dans l'application de découvertes clés pour la recherche translationnelle. La compréhension de la signalisation induite par les pathogènes ainsi que son lien à l'invasion de la cellule hôte est d'une importance considérable pour le développement de drogues pour l'intervention thérapeutique contre les virus hautement pathogènes comme LASV.

Alteration of amino acid metabolism in neuronal aggregate cultures exposed to hypoglycaemic conditions.

The neuronal effects of glucose deficiency on amino acid metabolism was studied on three-dimensional cultures of rat telencephalon neurones. Transient (6 h) exposure of differentiated cultures to low glucose (0.25 mm instead of 25 mm) caused irreversible damage, as judged by the marked decrease in the activities of two neurone-specific enzymes and lactate dehydrogenase, 1 week after the hypoglycemic insult. Quantification of amino acids and ammonia in the culture media supernatants indicated increased amino acid utilization and ammonia production during glucose-deficiency. Measurement of intracellular amino acids showed decreased levels of alanine, glutamine, glutamate and GABA, while aspartate was increased. Added lactate (11 mm) during glucose deficiency largely prevented the changes in amino acid metabolism and ammonia production, and attenuated irreversible damage. Higher media levels of glutamine (4 mm instead of 0.25 mm) during glucose deprivation prevented the decrease of intracellular glutamate and GABA, while it further increased intracellular aspartate, ammonia production and neuronal damage. Both lactate and glutamine were readily oxidized in these neuronal cultures. The present results suggest that in neurones, glucose deficiency enhances amino acid deamination at the expense of transamination reactions. This results in increased ammonia production and neuronal damage.

Local ocular immunomodulation resulting from electrotransfer of plasmid encoding soluble TNF receptors in the ciliary muscle.

PURPOSE: Plasmid electrotransfer in the ciliary muscle allows the sustained release of therapeutic proteins within the eye. The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the ocular production of TNF-alpha soluble receptor, using this nonviral gene therapy method, could have a beneficial local effect in a model of experimental autoimmune uveoretinitis (EAU). METHODS: Injection of a plasmid encoding a TNF-alpha p55 receptor (30 microg) in the ciliary muscle, combined with electrotransfer (200 V/cm), was carried out in Lewis rat eyes 4 days before the induction of EAU by S-antigen. Control eyes received naked plasmid electrotransfer or simple injection of the therapeutic plasmid. The disease was evaluated clinically and histologically. Cytokines and chemokines were analyzed in the ocular media by multiplex assay performed 15 and 21 days after immunization. RESULTS: Ocular TNF-alpha blockade, resulting from the local secretion of soluble receptors, was associated with delayed and significantly less severe uveitis, together with a reduction of the retinal damages. Compared with the controls, treated eyes showed significantly lower levels of IL-1beta and MCP1, higher levels of IL-13 and IL-4, and reduced NOS-2 expression in infiltrating cells. Treatment did not influence TNF-alpha levels in inguinal lymph nodes. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results indicate that local immunomodulation was achieved and that no systemic adverse effects of TNF-alpha blockade observed after systemic injection of TNF-alpha inhibitors should be expected.

Influence of the timing of low-dose aspirin on tolerability of prolonged-release nicotinic acid in patients at elevated cardiovascular risk

OBJECTIVES: To investigate the effect of low-dose aspirin administered in the morning or evening on the rate of discontinuation of prolonged-release nicotinic acid (Niaspan) due to flushing in patients at elevated cardiovascular risk. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This was an observational, non-interventional study in patients at elevated cardiovascular risk due to cardiovascular disease or type 2 diabetes. Patients received prolonged-release nicotinic acid and aspirin under the usual care of their physician for 15 weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The main outcome measure was the rate of treatment discontinuation for flushing. Other adverse drug reactions (ADRs) were also recorded. Lipid parameters were also measured. RESULTS: The patient population included 539 subjects (70% male); 36% had type 2 diabetes, 80% had prior cardiovascular disease, and 37% had a family history of cardiovascular disease. The rate of treatment discontinuation due to flushing did not differ (p = 0.3375) between the morning aspirin group (10.6%) and the evening aspirin group (13.8%). The overall incidence of flushing was 57%. Most flushes were of mild or moderate severity and decreases occurred over time in both frequency and intensity. ADRs unrelated to flushing occurred in 6.6% of the morning aspirin group and 7.4% of the evening aspirin group. HDL-cholesterol increased by +21.3% in the overall population, together with moderate improvements in other lipid parameters. CONCLUSIONS: Flushing was the most common ADR with prolonged-release nicotinic acid treatment, as expected. The timing of aspirin administration did not influence the rate of treatment discontinuations for flushing. Marked increases in HDL-cholesterol were observed.

Neuronal expression of the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 in rat dorsal root ganglia: Modulation in the spared nerve injury model of neuropathic pain.

Neuronal hyperexcitability following peripheral nerve lesions may stem from altered activity of voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs), which gives rise to allodynia or hyperalgesia. In vitro, the ubiquitin ligase Nedd4-2 is a negative regulator of VGSC α-subunits (Na(v)), in particular Na(v)1.7, a key actor in nociceptor excitability. We therefore studied Nedd4-2 in rat nociceptors, its co-expression with Na(v)1.7 and Na(v)1.8, and its regulation in pathology. Adult rats were submitted to the spared nerve injury (SNI) model of neuropathic pain or injected with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA), a model of inflammatory pain. L4 dorsal root ganglia (DRG) were analyzed in sham-operated animals, seven days after SNI and 48h after CFA with immunofluorescence and Western blot. We observed Nedd4-2 expression in almost 50% of DRG neurons, mostly small and medium-sized. A preponderant localization is found in the non-peptidergic sub-population. Additionally, 55.7±2.7% and 55.0±3.6% of Nedd4-2-positive cells are co-labeled with Na(v)1.7 and Na(v)1.8 respectively. SNI significantly decreases the proportion of Nedd4-2-positive neurons from 45.9±1.9% to 33.5±0.7% (p<0.01) and the total Nedd4-2 protein to 44%±0.13% of its basal level (p<0.01, n=4 animals in each group, mean±SEM). In contrast, no change in Nedd4-2 was found after peripheral inflammation induced by CFA. These results indicate that Nedd4-2 is present in nociceptive neurons, is downregulated after peripheral nerve injury, and might therefore contribute to the dysregulation of Na(v)s involved in the hyperexcitability associated with peripheral nerve injuries.

Neuronal potential of cells in early postnatal rat sciatic nerve.

A population of undifferentiated cells with neuronal potentialities were revealed in rat sciatic nerve. Explant cultures of sciatic nerve were prepared from newborn or early postnatal rat. Cultures were growth in F14 medium supplemented with 10% of fetal calf serum, incubated in a humidified 3% CO2, 97% air atmosphere. Within 2 weeks, refractile cells exhibiting the morphology of neurons were observed in all examined cultures. These cells had ovoid or multipolar refractile cells bodies with extended cytoplasmic processes. The neuronal nature of these cells was confirmed by their immunostaining with specific neuronal markers: neurofilament triplets, neuron-specific enolase, peripherin, microtubule-associated proteins, and brain spectrin. This neuronal population displayed various phenotypes. The CO2 concentration in the incubator plays an important role, since the number of differentiated neurons was lower in cultures incubated in 5% CO2. Since the sciatic nerve is devoid of nerve cell bodies in vivo, we concluded that early postnatal sciatic nerve contains crest cells with neuronal potentialities differentiating into neurons in response to the culture's environmental cues.

Differential expression and hypoxic regulation of adenosine receptors and TRPC channels in the developing heart.

Objectives: To characterize the modifications of gene expression of adenosine receptors (AR), TRPC channels, HIF-1α and iNOS during the early cardiogenesis in response to chronic hypoxia exposure. Methods: 4-day-old chick embryos were subjected in ovo to 6H, 12H and 24H of hypoxia (10% O2). The mRNA expression was quantified by RT-qPCR. Results: The targeted genes were found to be expressed at mRNA level with a differential expression pattern within the heart. Hypoxia has no significant effect on mRNA expression of ARs, TRPCs channels and iNOS within the heart. By contrast, HIF-1α mRNA expression shows a tendency to be down-regulated by hypoxia. Conclusion: These results suggest that an intrauterine oxygen lack does not significantly affect expression of genes involved in adenosine signaling and in calcium handling by store operated channels (TRPC).

Interaction between neuropeptide Y (NPY) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in NPY-mediated neuroprotection against excitotoxicity : a role for microglia

The neuroprotective effect of neuropeptide Y (NPY) receptor activation was investigated in organotypic mouse hippocampal slice cultures exposed to the glutamate receptor agonist alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid (AMPA). Exposure of 2-week-old slice cultures, derived from 7-day-old C57BL/6 mice, to 8 microm AMPA, for 24 h, induced degeneration of CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cells, as measured by cellular uptake of propidium iodide (PI). A significant neuroprotection, with a reduction of PI uptake in CA1 and CA3 pyramidal cell layers, was observed after incubation with a Y(2) receptor agonist [NPY(13-36), 300 nm]. This effect was sensitive to the presence of the selective Y(2) receptor antagonist (BIIE0246, 1 microm), but was not affected by addition of TrkB-Fc or by a neutralizing antibody against brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Moreover, addition of a Y(1) receptor antagonist (BIBP3226, 1 microm) or a NPY-neutralizing antibody helped to disclose a neuroprotective role of endogenous NPY in CA1 region. Cultures exposed to 8 microm AMPA for 24 h, displayed, as measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, a significant increase in BDNF. In such cultures there was an up-regulation of neuronal TrkB immunoreactivity, as well as the presence of BDNF-immunoreactive microglial cells at sites of injury. Thus, an increase of AMPA-receptor mediated neurodegeneration, in the mouse hippocampus, was prevented by neuroprotective pathways activated by NPY receptors (Y(1) and Y(2)), which can be affected by BDNF released by microglia and neurons.

Multiple roles of mouse Numb in tuning developmental cell fates.

BACKGROUND: Notch signaling regulates multiple differentiation processes and cell fate decisions during both invertebrate and vertebrate development. Numb encodes an intracellular protein that was shown in Drosophila to antagonize Notch signaling at binary cell fate decisions of certain cell lineages. Although overexpression experiments suggested that Numb might also antagonize some Notch activity in vertebrates, the developmental processes in which Numb is involved remained elusive. RESULTS: We generated mice with a homozygous inactivation of Numb. These mice died before embryonic day E11.5, probably because of defects in angiogenic remodeling and placental dysfunction. Mutant embryos had an open anterior neural tube and impaired neuronal differentiation within the developing cranial central nervous system (CNS). In the developing spinal cord, the number of differentiated motoneurons was reduced. Within the peripheral nervous system (PNS), ganglia of cranial sensory neurons were formed. Trunk neural crest cells migrated and differentiated into sympathetic neurons. In contrast, a selective differentiation anomaly was observed in dorsal root ganglia, where neural crest--derived progenitor cells had migrated normally to form ganglionic structures, but failed to differentiate into sensory neurons. CONCLUSIONS: Mouse Numb is involved in multiple developmental processes and required for cell fate tuning in a variety of lineages. In the nervous system, Numb is required for the generation of a large subset of neuronal lineages. The restricted requirement of Numb during neural development in the mouse suggests that in some neuronal lineages, Notch signaling may be regulated independently of Numb.