Ayurvedic Approach to Rheumatologic Disorders

In Ayurvedic texts rheumatologic diseases are described under 'Sandhgat Roga", the diseases of joints. Although many of the diseases under this category resemble rheurnatologic diseases classified under western medicine, the approach to differential diagnosis may be different. For greater understanding of Ayurvedic concept of rheurnatologic diseases only few diseases are discussed here. The case presentation of Amavafa provides greater understanding of how Ayurvedic differential diagnosis is made in context of its western counterpart, the rheumatoid arthritis.

[Sausage or carrot--spoilt for choice].

As far as healthy food is concerned, it cannot be categorized simply as "good" or "bad" since its effect on health depends mainly on the amount and method consumed. Today's recommendations include a diversified diet, a diet which targets energy-balance and provides all nutrients necessary. Living in an affluent society aggravates healthy choices because of a constantly available, large assortment of food items. In general, the way food is prepared these days has changed a lot: mainly, the energy content has constantly increased, while the fiber and natural micronutrient concentrations decreased. Food items with a high energy yield, containing a lot of fat and sugar, affects our energy balance, which may lead to diseases of affluence such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and some kinds of tumors.

Elevated CSF histamine levels in multiple sclerosis patients.

BACKGROUND Histamine is an ubiquitous inflammatory mediator of numerous physiological processes. Histamine and its receptors have been implicated in multiple sclerosis (MS) disease pathogenesis. We prospectively enrolled 36 MS patients and 19 age and gender-matched healthy volunteers for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) histamine analysis. FINDINGS CSF HISTAMINE LEVELS IN MS PATIENT SAMPLES WERE SIGNIFICANTLY HIGHER (MEDIAN: 35.6 pg/ml) than in controls (median: 5.5 pg/ml; Beta = 0.525, p < 0.001). In addition, histamine increased with age (Pearson's correlation, p < 0.003). CONCLUSIONS Histamine may be an important factor for both the initiation and maintenance of chronic inflammatory diseases of the central nervous system. Our observation encourages a deeper investigation of the role of histamine in MS.

Morphologic-anthropological investigations in tomb K93.12 at Dra’ Abu el-Naga (Western Thebes, Egypt)

In this study we present the analysis of the human remains from tomb K93.12 in the Ancient Egyptian necropolis of Dra’ Abu el-Naga, located opposite the modern city of Luxor in Upper Egypt on the western bank of the Nile. Archaeological findings indicate that the rock tomb was originally built in the early 18th dynasty. Remains of two tomb-temples of the 20th dynasty and the looted burial of the High Priest of Amun Amenhotep have been identified. After the New Kingdom the tomb was reused as a burial place until the 26th dynasty. The skeletal and mummified material of the different tomb areas underwent a detailed anthropological and paleopathological analysis. The human remains were mostly damaged and scattered due to extensive grave robberies. In total, 79 individuals could be partly reconstructed and investigated. The age and sex distribution revealed a male predominance and a high percentage of young children (< 6 years) and adults in the range of 20 to 40 years. The paleopathological analysis showed a high prevalence of stress markers such as cribra orbitalia in the younger individuals, and other pathological conditions such as dental diseases, degenerative diseases and a possible case of ankylosing spondylitis. Additionally, 13 mummies of an intrusive waste pit could be attributed to three different groups belonging to earlier time periods based on their style of mummification and materials used. The study revealed important information on the age and sex distribution and diseases of the individuals buried in tomb K93.12.

The COLOSS BEEBOOK Volume II: Standard methods for Apis mellifera pest and pathogen research

n recent years, declines of honey bee populations have received massive media attention worldwide, yet attempts to understand the causes have been hampered by a lack of standardisation of laboratory techniques. Published as a response to this, the COLOSS BEEBOOK is a unique collaborative venture involving 234 bee scientists from 34 countries, who have produced the definitive guide to how to carry out research on honey bees. It is hoped that these volumes will become the standards to be adopted by bee scientists worldwide. Volume II includes approximately 600 separate protocols dealing with the study of the pests and diseases of the honey bee, Apis mellifera. These cover epidemiology and surveying techniques, virus diseases, bacterial diseases such as European and American foulbrood, fungal and microsporidian diseases such as Nosema, mites such as Acarapis, Varroa and Tropilaelaps, and other pests such as the small hive beetle.

Human TH9 cells are skin-tropic and have autocrine and paracrine proinflammatory capacity.

T helper type 9 (TH9) cells can mediate tumor immunity and participate in autoimmune and allergic inflammation in mice, but little is known about the TH9 cells that develop in vivo in humans. We isolated T cells from human blood and tissues and found that most memory TH9 cells were skin-tropic or skin-resident. Human TH9 cells coexpressed tumor necrosis factor-α and granzyme B and lacked coproduction of TH1/TH2/TH17 cytokines, and many were specific for Candida albicans. Interleukin-9 (IL-9) production was transient and preceded the up-regulation of other inflammatory cytokines. Blocking studies demonstrated that IL-9 was required for maximal production of interferon-γ, IL-9, IL-13, and IL-17 by skin-tropic T cells. IL-9-producing T cells were increased in the skin lesions of psoriasis, suggesting that these cells may contribute to human inflammatory skin disease. Our results indicate that human TH9 cells are a discrete T cell subset, many are tropic for the skin, and although they may function normally to protect against extracellular pathogens, aberrant activation of these cells may contribute to inflammatory diseases of the skin.

Proliferative kidney disease in brown trout – infection level, pathology and mortality under field conditions

Proliferative kidney disease (PKD) is an emerging disease threatening wild salmonid populations. In temperature-controlled aquaria, PKD can cause mortality rates of up to 85% in rainbow trout. So far, no data about PKD-related mortality in wild brown trout Salmo trutta fario are available. The aim of this study was to investigate mortality rates and pathology in brown trout kept in a cage within a natural river habitat known to harbor Tetracapsuloides bryosalmonae. Young-of-the-year (YOY) brown trout, free of T. bryosalmonae, were exposed in the River Wutach, in the northeast of Switzerland, during 3 summer months. Samples of wild brown trout caught by electrofishing near the cage location were examined in parallel. The incidence of PKD in cage-exposed animals (69%) was not significantly different to the disease prevalence of wild fish (82 and 80% in the upstream and downstream locations, respectively). The mortality in cageexposed animals, however, was as low as 15%. At the termination of the exposure experiment, surviving fish showed histological lesions typical for PKD regression, suggesting that many YOY brown trout survive the initial infection. Our results at the River Wutach suggest that PKD in brown trout does not always result in high mortality under natural conditions.

Immune response in pemphigus and beyond: progresses and emerging concepts

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) and pemphigus foliaceus (PF) are two severe autoimmune bullous diseases of the mucosae and/or skin associated with autoantibodies directed against desmoglein (Dsg) 3 and/or Dsg1. These two desmosomal cadherins, typifying stratified epithelia, are components of cell adhesion complexes called desmosomes and represent extra-desmosomal adhesion receptors. We herein review the advances in our understanding of the immune response underlying pemphigus, including human leucocyte antigen (HLA) class II-associated genetic susceptibility, characteristics of pathogenic anti-Dsg antibodies, antigenic mapping studies as well as findings about Dsg-specific B and T cells. The pathogenicity of anti-Dsg autoantibodies has been convincingly demonstrated. Disease activity and clinical phenotype correlate with anti-Dsg antibody titers and profile while passive transfer of anti-Dsg IgG from pemphigus patients' results in pemphigus-like lesions in neonatal and adult mice. Finally, adoptive transfer of splenocytes from Dsg3-knockout mice immunized with murine Dsg3 into immunodeficient mice phenotypically recapitulates PV. Although the exact pathogenic mechanisms leading to blister formation have not been fully elucidated, intracellular signaling following antibody binding has been found to be necessary for inducing cell-cell dissociation, at least for PV. These new insights not only highlight the key role of Dsgs in maintenance of tissue homeostasis but are expected to progressively change pemphigus management, paving the way for novel targeted immunologic and pharmacologic therapies.

Joining the dots - understanding the complex interplay between the values we place on wildlife, biodiversity conservation, human and animal health: A review.

The value of wildlife has long been ignored or under-rated. However, growing concerns about biodiversity loss and emerging diseases of wildlife origin have enhanced debates about the importance of wildlife. Wildlife-related diseases are viewed through these debates as a potential threat to wildlife conservation and domestic animal and human health. This article provides an overview of the values we place on wildlife (positive: socio-cultural, nutritional, economic, ecological; and negative: damages, health issues) and of the significance of diseases for biodiversity conservation. It shows that the values of wildlife, the emergence of wildlife diseases and biodiversity conservation are closely linked. The article also illustrates why investigations into wildlife diseases are now recognized as an integral part of global health issues. The modern One Health concept requires multi-disciplinary research groups including veterinarians, human physicians, ecologists and other scientists collaborating towards a common goal: prevention of disease emergence and preservation of ecosystems, both of which are essential to protect human life and well-being.

Factors associated with diabetes in tuberculosis patients in Harris County, Texas 1995--2004

Objective. To determine the prevalence and factors associated with diabetes in tuberculosis patients in Harris County, Texas. ^ Background. Tuberculosis and diabetes mellitus are two diseases of immense public health significance. Various epidemiologic studies have established an association between the two conditions. While many studies have identified factors associated with the conditions individually, few have looked at factors associated with their co-occurrence particularly in the United States. Furthermore, most of those studies are hospital-based and may not be representative of the population. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and distribution of diabetes among tuberculosis patients in Harris County, Texas and to identify the factors associated with diabetes in tuberculosis. ^ Methods. A population-based case control study was performed using secondary data from the Houston Tuberculosis Initiative (HTI) collected from October 1995 to September 2004. Socio-demographic characteristics and clinical variables were compared between tuberculosis patients with diabetes and non-diabetic tuberculosis patients. Logistic regression analysis was performed to identify associations. Survival at 180 days post tuberculosis diagnosis was assessed by Cox regression. ^ Results. The prevalence of diabetes among the tuberculosis (TB) population was 14.4%. The diabetics (cases) with a mean age 53 ± 13.3 years were older than the non-diabetics (controls) with a mean age of 39 ± 18.5 years (p<0.001). Socio-demographic variables that were independently associated with the risk of diabetes were age (OR 1.04, p<0.001) and Hispanic ethnicity (OR 2.04, p<0.001). Diabetes was associated with an increased risk of pulmonary tuberculosis disease (OR 1.33, p<0.028). Among individuals with pulmonary TB, diabetes was associated with positive sputum acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear (OR 1.47, p<0.005) and culture (OR 1.83, p<0.018). Diabetics were more likely to have cavitary lung disease than non-diabetics (OR 1.50, p<0.002). After adjustment for age and HIV status, the risk of dying within 180 days of TB diagnosis was significantly increased in the diabetics (HR 1.51, p<0.002). ^ Conclusion. Diabetes mellitus was more prevalent in our tuberculosis patients than in the general population. The tuberculous diabetic may be more infectious and has a higher risk of death. It is therefore imperative to screen diabetics for TB and TB patients for diabetes. ^

Jean-Martin Charcot - Neurologist by Avocation, Nephrologist by Yearning

In an age of medical advances and specialization, Jean-Martin Charcot (1825-1893) helped found the discipline of neurology and in 1882 was appointed the first professor of Diseases of the Nervous System in France. As an investigator with broad interests and vast knowledge Charcot contributed to several other disciplines. An early mentor and dominant figure in Charcot's formative years was Pierre Rayer (1793-1867), famous for his seminal contributions to the study of the kidney, who gifted Charcot with his passion for clinical pathological correlations and likely a yearning for the study of kidney diseases. Famous for the clarity and incisiveness of his formal teaching presentations, Charcot lectured on the kidney at the Faculty of Medicine in Paris in 1877. Translated into English and published as a book titled Lectures on Bright's Disease, they became widely accessible and quoted in the literature through the present. In addition, at a time that he was already concentrating on the study of neurological disorders, Charcot maintained his life-long interest in the kidney and published original studies on the pathological changes of the kidney in gout and experimental lead poisoning, as well as supporting a study of hysterical ischuria by his students.

Transcriptional changes and oxidative stress associated with the synergistic interaction between potato virus X and potato virus Y and their relationship with symptom expression.

Many virus diseases of economic importance to agriculture result from mixtures of different pathogens invading the host at a given time. This contrasts with the relatively scarce studies available on the molecular events associated with virus---host interactions in mixed infections. Compared with single infections, co-infection of Nicotiana benthamiana with Potato virus X (PVX) and Potato virus Y (PVY) resulted in increased systemic symptoms (synergism) that led to necrosis of the newly emerging leaves and death of the plant. A comparative transcriptional analysis was undertaken to identify quantitative and qualitative differences in gene expression during this synergistic infection and correlate these changes with the severe symptoms it caused. Global transcription profiles of doubly infected leaves were compared with those from singly infected leaves using gene ontology enrichment analysis and metabolic pathway annotator software. Functional gene categories altered by the double infection comprise suites of genes regulated coordinately, which are associated with chloroplast functions (downregulated), protein synthesis and degradation (upregulated), carbohydrate metabolism (upregulated), and response to biotic stimulus and stress (upregulated). The expressions of reactive oxygen species?generating enzymes as well as several mitogen-activated protein kinases were also significantly induced. Accordingly, synergistic infection induced a severe oxidative stress in N. benthamiana leaves, as judged by increases in lipid peroxidation and by the generation of superoxide radicals in chloroplasts, which correlated with the misregulation of antioxidative genes in microarray data. Interestingly, expression of genes encoding oxylipin biosynthesis was uniquely upregulated by the synergistic infection. Virus-induced gene silencing of ?-dioxygenase1 delayed cell death during PVX?PVY infection.

Análisis de micromovilidad en vástagos femorales mediante ensayo dinámico de oscilaciones libres

La artroplastia de cadera se considera uno de los mayores avances quirúrgicos de la Medicina. La aplicación de esta técnica de Traumatología se ha incrementado notablemente en los últimos anos, a causa principalmente del progresivo incremento de la esperanza de vida. En efecto, con la edad aumentan los problemas de artrosis y osteoporosis, enfermedades típicas de las articulaciones y de los huesos que requieren en muchos casos la sustitución protésica total o parcial de la articulación. El buen comportamiento funcional de una prótesis depende en gran medida de la estabilidad primaria, es decir, el correcto anclaje de la prótesis en el momento de su implantación. Las prótesis no cementadas basan su éxito a largo plazo en la osteointegración que tiene lugar entre el material protésico y el tejido óseo, y para lograrla es imprescindible conseguir unas buenas condiciones de estabilidad primaria. El aflojamiento aséptico es la principal causa de fallo de artroplastia total de cadera. Este es un fenómeno en el que, debido a complejas interacciones de factores mecánicos y biológicos, se producen movimientos relativos que comprometen la funcionalidad del implante. La minimización de los correspondientes danos depende en gran medida de la detección precoz del aflojamiento. Para lograr la detección temprana del aflojamiento aséptico del vástago femoral se han ensayado diferentes técnicas, tanto in vivo como in vitro: análisis numéricos y técnicas experimentales basadas en sensores de movimientos provocados por cargas transmitidas natural o artificialmente, tales como impactos o vibraciones de distintas frecuencias. Los montajes y procedimientos aplicados son heterogéneos y, en muchas ocasiones, complejos y costosos, no existiendo acuerdo sobre una técnica simple y eficaz de aplicación general. Asimismo, en la normativa vigente que regula las condiciones que debe cumplir una prótesis previamente a su comercialización, no hay ningún apartado referido específicamente a la evaluación de la bondad del diseño del vástago femoral con respecto a la estabilidad primaria. El objetivo de esta tesis es desarrollar una metodología para el análisis, in vitro, de la estabilidad de un vástago femoral implantado, a fin de poder evaluar las técnicas de implantación y los diferentes diseños de prótesis previamente a su oferta en el mercado. Además se plantea como requisito fundamental que el método desarrollado sea sencillo, reversible, repetible, no destructivo, con control riguroso de parámetros (condiciones de contorno de cargas y desplazamientos) y con un sistema de registro e interpretación de resultados rápido, fiable y asequible. Como paso previo, se ha realizado un análisis cualitativo del problema de contacto en la interfaz hueso-vástago aplicando una técnica optomecánica del campo continuo (fotoelasticidad). Para ello se han fabricado tres modelos en 2D del conjunto hueso-vástago, simulando tres tipos de contactos en la interfaz: contacto sin adherencia y con holgura, contacto sin adherencia y sin holgura, y contacto con adherencia y homogéneo. Aplicando la misma carga a cada modelo, y empleando la técnica de congelación de tensiones, se han visualizado los correspondientes estados tensionales, siendo estos más severos en el modelo de unión sin adherencia, como cabía esperar. En todo caso, los resultados son ilustrativos de la complejidad del problema de contacto y confirman la conveniencia y necesidad de la vía experimental para el estudio del problema. Seguidamente se ha planteado un ensayo dinámico de oscilaciones libres con instrumentación de sensores resistivos tipo galga extensométrica. Las muestras de ensayo han sido huesos fémur en todas sus posibles variantes: modelos simplificados, hueso sintético normalizado y hueso de cadáver, seco y fresco. Se ha diseñado un sistema de empotramiento del extremo distal de la muestra (fémur) con control riguroso de las condiciones de anclaje. La oscilación libre de la muestra se ha obtenido mediante la liberación instantánea de una carga estética determinada y aplicada previamente, bien con una maquina de ensayo o bien por gravedad. Cada muestra se ha instrumentado con galgas extensométricas convencionales cuya señal se ha registrado con un equipo dinámico comercial. Se ha aplicado un procedimiento de tratamiento de señal para acotar, filtrar y presentar las respuestas de los sensores en el dominio del tiempo y de la frecuencia. La interpretación de resultados es de tipo comparativo: se aplica el ensayo a una muestra de fémur Intacto que se toma de referencia, y a continuación se repite el ensayo sobre la misma muestra con una prótesis implantada; la comparación de resultados permite establecer conclusiones inmediatas sobre los efectos de la implantación de la prótesis. La implantación ha sido realizada por un cirujano traumatólogo utilizando las mismas técnicas e instrumental empleadas en el quirófano durante la práctica clínica real, y se ha trabajado con tres vástagos femorales comerciales. Con los resultados en el dominio del tiempo y de la frecuencia de las distintas aplicaciones se han establecido conclusiones sobre los siguientes aspectos: Viabilidad de los distintos tipos de muestras sintéticas: modelos simplificados y fémur sintético normalizado. Repetibilidad, linealidad y reversibilidad del ensayo. Congruencia de resultados con los valores teóricos deducidos de la teoría de oscilaciones libres de barras. Efectos de la implantación de tallos femorales en la amplitud de las oscilaciones, amortiguamiento y frecuencias de oscilación. Detección de armónicos asociados a la micromovilidad. La metodología se ha demostrado apta para ser incorporada a la normativa de prótesis, es de aplicación universal y abre vías para el análisis de la detección y caracterización de la micromovilidad de una prótesis frente a las cargas de servicio. ABSTRACT Total hip arthroplasty is considered as one of the greatest surgical advances in medicine. The application of this technique on Traumatology has increased significantly in recent years, mainly due to the progressive increase in life expectancy. In fact, advanced age increases osteoarthritis and osteoporosis problems, which are typical diseases of joints and bones, and in many cases require full or partial prosthetic replacement on the joint. Right functional behavior of prosthesis is highly dependent on the primary stability; this means it depends on the correct anchoring of the prosthesis at the time of implantation. Uncemented prosthesis base their long-term success on the quality of osseointegration that takes place between the prosthetic material and bone tissue, and to achieve this good primary stability conditions is mandatory. Aseptic loosening is the main cause of failure in total hip arthroplasty. This is a phenomenon in which relative movements occur, due to complex interactions of mechanical and biological factors, and these micromovements put the implant functionality at risk. To minimize possible damage, it greatly depends on the early detection of loosening. For this purpose, various techniques have been tested both in vivo and in vitro: numerical analysis and experimental techniques based on sensors for movements caused by naturally or artificially transmitted loads, such as impacts or vibrations at different frequencies. The assemblies and methods applied are heterogeneous and, in many cases, they are complex and expensive, with no agreement on the use of a simple and effective technique for general purposes. Likewise, in current regulations for governing the conditions to be fulfilled by the prosthesis before going to market, there is no specific section related to the evaluation of the femoral stem design in relation to primary stability. The aim of this thesis is to develop a in vitro methodology for analyzing the stability of an implanted femoral stem, in order to assess the implantation techniques and the different prosthesis designs prior to its offer in the market. We also propose as a fundamental requirement that the developed testing method should be simple, reversible, repeatable, non-destructive, with close monitoring of parameters (boundary conditions of loads and displacements) and with the availability of a register system to record and interpret results in a fast, reliable and affordable manner. As a preliminary step, we have performed a qualitative analysis of the contact problems in the bone-stem interface, through the application of a continuous field optomechanical technique (photoelasticity). For this proposal three 2D models of bone–stem set, has been built simulating three interface contact types: loosened an unbounded contact, unbounded and fixed contact, and bounded homogeneous contact. By means of applying the same load to each model, and using the stress freezing technique, it has displayed the corresponding stress states, being more severe as expected, in the unbounded union model. In any case, the results clearly show the complexity of the interface contact problem, and they confirm the need for experimental studies about this problem. Afterward a free oscillation dynamic test has been done using resistive strain gauge sensors. Test samples have been femur bones in all possible variants: simplified models, standardized synthetic bone, and dry and cool cadaveric bones. An embedding system at the distal end of the sample with strong control of the anchoring conditions has been designed. The free oscillation of the sample has been obtained by the instantaneous release of a static load, which was previously determined and applied to the sample through a testing machine or using the gravity force. Each sample was equipped with conventional strain gauges whose signal is registered with a marketed dynamic equipment. Then, it has applied a signal processing procedure to delimit, filter and present the time and frequency response signals from the sensors. Results are interpreted by comparing different trials: the test is applied to an intact femur sample which is taken as a reference, and then this test is repeated over the same sample with an implanted prosthesis. From comparison between results, immediate conclusions about the effects of the implantation of the prosthesis can be obtained. It must be said that the implementation has been made by an expert orthopedic surgeon using the same techniques and instruments as those used in clinical surgery. He has worked with three commercial femoral stems. From the results obtained in the time and frequency domains for the different applications the following conclusions have been established: Feasibility of the different types of synthetic samples: simplified models and standardized synthetic femur. Repeatability, linearity and reversibility of the testing method. Consistency of results with theoretical values deduced from the bars free oscillations theory. Effects of introduction of femoral stems in the amplitude, damping and frequencies of oscillations Detection of micromobility associated harmonics. This methodology has been proved suitable to be included in the standardization process of arthroplasty prosthesis, it is universally applicable and it allows establishing new methods for the analysis, detection and characterization of prosthesis micromobility due to functional loads.

Compromisos en la adaptación a distintos huéspedes en virus de plantas

Los patógenos han desarrollado estrategias para sobrevivir en su entorno, infectar a sus huéspedes, multiplicarse dentro de estos y posteriormente transmitirse a otros huéspedes. Todos estos componentes hacen parte de la eficacia biológica de los patógenos, y les permiten ser los causantes de enfermedades infecciosas tanto en hombres y animales, como en plantas. El proceso de infección produce efectos negativos en la eficacia biológica del huésped y la gravedad de los efectos, dependerá de la virulencia del patógeno. Por su parte, el huésped ha desarrollado mecanismos de respuesta en contra del patógeno, tales como la resistencia, por la que reduce la multiplicación del patógeno, o la tolerancia, por la que disminuye el efecto negativo de la infección. Estas respuestas del huésped a la infección producen efectos negativos en la eficacia biológica del patógeno, actuando como una presión selectiva sobre su población. Si la presión selectiva sobre el patógeno varía según el huésped, se predice que un mismo patógeno no podrá aumentar su eficacia biológica en distintos huéspedes y estará más adaptado a un huésped y menos a otro, disminuyendo su gama de huéspedes. Esto supone que la adaptación de un patógeno a distintos huéspedes estará a menudo dificultada por compromisos (trade-off) en diferentes componentes de la eficacia biológica del patógeno. Hasta el momento, la evidencia de compromisos de la adaptación del patógeno a distintos huéspedes no es muy abundante, en lo que se respecta a los virus de plantas. En las últimas décadas, se ha descrito un aumento en la incidencia de virus nuevos o previamente descritos que producen enfermedades infecciosas con mayor gravedad y/o diferente patogenicidad, como la infección de huéspedes previamente resistentes. Esto se conoce como la emergencia de enfermedades infecciosas y está causada por patógenos emergentes, que proceden de un huésped reservorio donde se encuentran adaptados. Los huéspedes que actúan como reservorios pueden ser plantas silvestres, que a menudo presentan pocos síntomas o muy leves a pesar de estar infectados con diferentes virus, y asimismo se encuentran en ecosistemas con ninguna o poca intervención humana. El estudio de los factores ecológicos y biológicos que actúan en el proceso de la emergencia de enfermedades infecciosas, ayudará a entender sus causas para crear estrategias de prevención y control. Los virus son los principales patógenos causales de la emergencia de enfermedades infecciosas en humanos, animales y plantas y un buen modelo para entender los procesos de la emergencia. Asimismo, las plantas a diferencia de los animales, son huéspedes fáciles de manipular y los virus que las afectan, más seguros para el trabajo en laboratorio que los virus de humanos y animales, otros modelos también usados en la investigación. Por lo tanto, la interacción virus – planta es un buen modelo experimental para el estudio de la emergencia de enfermedades infecciosas. El estudio de la emergencia de virus en plantas tiene también un interés particular, debido a que los virus pueden ocasionar pérdidas económicas en los cultivos agrícolas y poner en riesgo la durabilidad de la resistencia de plantas mejoradas, lo que supone un riesgo en la seguridad alimentaria con impactos importantes en la sociedad, comparables con las enfermedades infecciosas de humanos y animales domésticos. Para que un virus se convierta en un patógeno emergente debe primero saltar desde su huésped reservorio a un nuevo huésped, segundo adaptarse al nuevo huésped hasta que la infección dentro de la población de éste se vuelva independiente del reservorio y finalmente debe cambiar su epidemiología. En este estudio, se escogió la emergencia del virus del mosaico del pepino dulce (PepMV) en el tomate, como modelo experimental para estudiar la emergencia de un virus en una nueva especie de huésped, así como las infecciones de distintos genotipos del virus del moteado atenuado del pimiento (PMMoV) en pimiento, para estudiar la emergencia de un virus que aumenta su patogenicidad en un huésped previamente resistente. El estudio de ambos patosistemas nos permitió ampliar el conocimiento sobre los factores ecológicos y evolutivos en las dos primeras fases de la emergencia de enfermedades virales en plantas. El PepMV es un patógeno emergente en cultivos de tomate (Solanum lycopersicum) a nivel mundial, que se describió primero en 1980 infectando pepino dulce (Solanum muricatum L.) en Perú, y casi una década después causando una epidemia en cultivos de tomate en Holanda. La introducción a Europa posiblemente fue a través de semillas infectadas de tomate procedentes de Perú, y desde entonces se han descrito nuevos aislados que se agrupan en cuatro cepas (EU, LP, CH2, US1) que infectan a tomate. Sin embargo, el proceso de su emergencia desde pepino dulce hasta tomate es un interrogante de gran interés, porque es uno de los virus emergentes más recientes y de gran importancia económica. Para la emergencia de PepMV en tomate, se recolectaron muestras de tomate silvestre procedentes del sur de Perú, se analizó la presencia y diversidad de aislados de PepMV y se caracterizaron tanto biológicamente (gama de huéspedes), como genéticamente (secuencias genomicas). Se han descrito en diferentes regiones del mundo aislados de PMMoV que han adquirido la capacidad de infectar variedades previamente resistentes de pimiento (Capsicum spp), es decir, un típico caso de emergencia de virus que implica la ampliación de su gama de huéspedes y un aumento de patogenicidad. Esto tiene gran interés, ya que compromete el uso de variedades resistentes obtenidas por mejora genética, que es la forma de control de virus más eficaz que existe. Para estudiar la emergencia de genotipos altamente patogénicos de PMMoV, se analizaron clones biológicos de PMMoV procedentes de aislados de campo cuya patogenicidad era conocida (P1,2) y por mutagénesis se les aumentó la patogenicidad (P1,2,3 y P1,2,3,4), introduciendo las mutaciones descritas como responsables de estos fenotipos. Se analizó si el aumento de la patogenicidad conlleva un compromiso en la eficacia biológica de los genotipos de PMMoV. Para ello se evaluaron diferentes componentes de la eficacia biológica del virus en diferentes huéspedes con distintos alelos de resistencia. Los resultados de esta tesis demuestran: i). El potencial de las plantas silvestres como reservorios de virus emergentes, en este caso tomates silvestres del sur de Perú, así como la existencia en estas plantas de aislados de PepMV de una nueva cepa no descrita que llamamos PES. ii) El aumento de la gama de huéspedes no es una condición estricta para la emergencia de los virus de plantas. iii) La adaptación es el mecanismo más probable en la emergencia de PepMV en tomate cultivado. iv) El aumento de la patogenicidad tiene un efecto pleiotrópico en distintos componentes de la eficacia biológica, así mismo el signo y magnitud de este efecto dependerá del genotipo del virus, del huésped y de la interacción de estos factores. ABSTRACT host Pathogens have evolved strategies to survive in their environment, infecting their hosts, multiplying inside them and being transmitted to other hosts. All of these components form part of the pathogen fitness, and allow them to be the cause of infectious diseases in humans, animals, and plants. The infection process produces negative effects on the host fitness and the effects severity will depend on the pathogen virulence. On the other hand, hosts have developed response mechanisms against pathogens such as resistance, which reduces the growth of pathogens, or tolerance, which decreases the negative effects of infection. T he se responses of s to infection cause negative effects on the pathogen fitness, acting as a selective pressure on its population. If the selective pressures on pathogens va ry according to the host s , probably one pathogen cannot increase its fitness in different hosts and will be more adapted to one host and less to another, decreasing its host range. This means that the adaptation of one pathogen to different hosts , will be often limited by different trade - off components of biological effectiveness of pathogen. Nowadays , trade - off evidence of pathogen adaptation to different hosts is not extensive, in relation with plant viruses. In last decades, an increase in the incidence of new or previously detected viruses has been described, causing infectious diseases with increased severity and/or different pathogenicity, such as the hosts infection previously resistants. This is known as the emergence of infectious diseases and is caused by emerging pathogens that come from a reservoir host where they are adapted. The hosts which act as reservoirs can be wild plants, that often have few symptoms or very mild , despite of being infected with different viruses, and being found in ecosystems with little or any human intervention. The study of ecological and biological factors , acting in the process of the infectious diseases emergence will help to understand its causes to create strategies for its prevention and control. Viruses are the main causative pathogens of the infectious diseases emergence in humans, animals and plants, and a good model to understand the emergency processes. Likewise, plants in contrast to animals are easy host to handle and viruses that affect them, safer for laboratory work than viruses of humans and animals, another models used in research. Therefore, the interaction plant-virus is a good experimental model for the study of the infectious diseases emergence. The study of virus emergence in plants also has a particular interest, because the viruses can cause economic losses in agricultural crops and threaten the resistance durability of improved plants, it suppose a risk for food security with significant impacts on society, comparable with infectious diseases of humans and domestic animals. To become an emerging pathogen, a virus must jump first from its reservoir host to a new host, then adapt to a new host until the infection within the population becomes independent from the reservoir, and finally must change its epidemiology. In this study, the emergence of pepino mosaic virus (PepMV) in tomato, was selected as experimental model to study the emergence of a virus in a new host specie, as well as the infections of different genotypes of pepper mild mottle virus (PMMoV) in pepper, to study the emergence of a virus that increases its pathogenicity in a previously resistant host. The study of both Pathosystems increased our knowledge about the ecological and evolutionary factors in the two first phases of the emergence of viral diseases in plants. The PepMV is an emerging pathogen in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) in the world, which was first described in 1980 by infecting pepino (Solanum muricatum L.) in Peru, and almost after a decade caused an epidemic in tomato crops in Netherlands. The introduction to Europe was possibly through infected tomato seeds from Peru, and from then have been described new isolates that are grouped in four strains (EU, LP, CH2, US1) that infect tomato. However, the process of its emergence from pepino up tomato is a very interesting question, because it is one of the newest emerging viruses and economically important. For the PepMV emergence in tomato, wild tomato samples from southern Peru were collected, and the presence and diversity of PepMV isolates were analyzed and characterized at biological (host range) and genetics (genomic sequences) levels. Isolates from PMMoV have been described in different world regions which have acquired the ability to infect pepper varieties that were previously resistants (Capsicum spp), it means, a typical case of virus emergence which involves the host range extension and an increased pathogenicity. This is of great interest due to involve the use of resistant varieties obtained by breeding, which is the most effective way to control virus. To study the emergence of highly pathogenic genotypes of PMMoV, biological clones from field isolates whose pathogenicity was known were analyzed (P1,2) and by mutagenesis we increased its pathogenicity (P1,2,3 and P1,2, 3,4), introducing the mutations described as responsible for these phenotypes. We analyzed whether the increased pathogenicity involves a trade-off in fitness of PMMoV genotypes. For this aim, different components of virus fitness in different hosts with several resistance alleles were evaluated. The results of this thesis show: i). The potential of wild plants as reservoirs of emerging viruses, in this case wild tomatoes in southern Peru, and the existence in these plants of PepMV isolates of a new undescribed strain that we call PES. ii) The host range expansion is not a strict condition for the plant virus emergence. iii) The adaptation is the most likely mechanism in the PepMV emergence in cultivated tomato. iv) The increased pathogenicity has a pleiotropic effect on several fitness components, besides the sign and magnitude of this effect depends on the virus genotype, the host and the interaction of both.