A 2D computational parametric analysis of the sheltering effect of fences on a railway vehicle standing on a bridge and experiencing crosswinds

In a crosswind scenario, the risk of high-speed trains overturning increases when they run on viaducts since the aerodynamic loads are higher than on the ground. In order to increase safety, vehicles are sheltered by fences that are installed on the viaduct to reduce the loads experienced by the train. Windbreaks can be designed to have different heights, and with or without eaves on the top. In this paper, a parametric study with a total of 12 fence designs was carried out using a two-dimensional model of a train standing on a viaduct. To asses the relative effectiveness of sheltering devices, tests were done in a wind tunnel with a scaled model at a Reynolds number of 1 × 105, and the train’s aerodynamic coefficients were measured. Experimental results were compared with those predicted by Unsteady Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (URANS) simulations of flow, showing that a computational model is able to satisfactorily predict the trend of the aerodynamic coefficients. In a second set of tests, the Reynolds number was increased to 12 × 106 (at a free flow air velocity of 30 m/s) in order to simulate strong wind conditions. The aerodynamic coefficients showed a similar trend for both Reynolds numbers; however, their numerical value changed enough to indicate that simulations at the lower Reynolds number do not provide all required information. Furthermore, the variation of coefficients in the simulations allowed an explanation of how fences modified the flow around the vehicle to be proposed. This made it clear why increasing fence height reduced all the coefficients but adding an eave had an effect mainly on the lift force coefficient. Finally, by analysing the time signals it was possible to clarify the influence of the Reynolds number on the peak-to-peak amplitude, the time period and the Strouhal number.

Uncertainty Analysis in New Seismic Hazard Study of Spain Aimed at the Revision of the Spanish Building Code.

In this paper we present a global overview of the recent study carried out in Spain for the new hazard map, which final goal is the revision of the Building Code in our country (NCSE-02). The study was carried our for a working group joining experts from The Instituto Geografico Nacional (IGN) and the Technical University of Madrid (UPM) , being the different phases of the work supervised by an expert Committee integrated by national experts from public institutions involved in subject of seismic hazard. The PSHA method (Probabilistic Seismic Hazard Assessment) has been followed, quantifying the epistemic uncertainties through a logic tree and the aleatory ones linked to variability of parameters by means of probability density functions and Monte Carlo simulations. In a first phase, the inputs have been prepared, which essentially are: 1) a project catalogue update and homogenization at Mw 2) proposal of zoning models and source characterization 3) calibration of Ground Motion Prediction Equations (GMPE’s) with actual data and development of a local model with data collected in Spain for Mw < 5.5. In a second phase, a sensitivity analysis of the different input options on hazard results has been carried out in order to have criteria for defining the branches of the logic tree and their weights. Finally, the hazard estimation was done with the logic tree shown in figure 1, including nodes for quantifying uncertainties corresponding to: 1) method for estimation of hazard (zoning and zoneless); 2) zoning models, 3) GMPE combinations used and 4) regression method for estimation of source parameters. In addition, the aleatory uncertainties corresponding to the magnitude of the events, recurrence parameters and maximum magnitude for each zone have been also considered including probability density functions and Monte Carlo simulations The main conclusions of the study are presented here, together with the obtained results in terms of PGA and other spectral accelerations SA (T) for return periods of 475, 975 and 2475 years. The map of the coefficient of variation (COV) are also represented to give an idea of the zones where the dispersion among results are the highest and the zones where the results are robust.

Controlled time of arrival feasibility analysis

Previous research studies and operational trials have shown that using the airborne Required Time of Arrival (RTA) function, an aircraft can individually achieve an assigned time to a metering or merge point accurately. This study goes a step further and investigates the application of RTA to a real sequence of arriving aircraft into Melbourne Australia. Assuming that the actual arrival times were Controlled Time of Arrivals (CTAs) assigned to each aircraft, the study examines if the airborne RTA solution would work. Three scenarios were compared: a baseline scenario being the actual flown trajectories in a two hour time-span into Melbourne, a scenario in which the sequential landing slot times of the baseline scenario were assigned as CTAs and a third scenario in which the landing slots could be freely redistributed to the inbound traffic as CTAs. The research found that pressure on the terminal area would sometimes require aircraft to lose more time than possible through the RTA capability. Using linear holding as an additional measure to absorb extensive delays, up to 500NM (5%) of total track reduction and 1300kg (3%) of total fuel consumption could be saved in the scenario with landing slots freely distributed as CTAs, compared to the baseline scenario. Assigning CTAs in an arrival sequence requires the ground system to have an accurate trajectory predictor to propose additional delay measures (path stretching, linear holding) if necessary. Reducing the achievable time window of the aircraft to add control margin to the RTA function, had a negative impact and increased the amount of intervention other than speed control required to solve the sequence. It was concluded that the RTA capability is not a complete solution but merely a tool to assist in managing the increasing complexity of air traffic.

Regression analysis of top of descent location for idle-thrust descents

In this paper, multiple regression analysis is used to model the top of descent (TOD) location of user-preferred descent trajectories computed by the flight management system (FMS) on over 1000 commercial flights into Melbourne, Australia. In addition to recording TOD, the cruise altitude, final altitude, cruise Mach, descent speed, wind, and engine type were also identified for use as the independent variables in the regression analysis. Both first-order and second-order models are considered, where cross-validation, hypothesis testing, and additional analysis are used to compare models. This identifies the models that should give the smallest errors if used to predict TOD location for new data in the future. A model that is linear in TOD altitude, final altitude, descent speed, and wind gives an estimated standard deviation of 3.9 nmi for TOD location given the trajectory parame- ters, which means about 80% of predictions would have error less than 5 nmi in absolute value. This accuracy is better than demonstrated by other ground automation predictions using kinetic models. Furthermore, this approach would enable online learning of the model. Additional data or further knowledge of algorithms is necessary to conclude definitively that no second-order terms are appropriate. Possible applications of the linear model are described, including enabling arriving aircraft to fly optimized descents computed by the FMS even in congested airspace.

Parametric analysis on bridge reinforced concrete elevated pile-cap foundations

Current design practices recommend to comply with the capacity protection principle, which pays special attention to ensuring an elastic response of the foundations under ground motion events. However, in cases such as elevated reinforced concrete (RC) pile-cap foundation typologies, this design criterion may lead to conservative designs, with excessively high construction costs. Reinforced concrete elevated pile-cap foundations is a system formed by a group of partially embedded piles connected through an aboveground stayed cap and embedded in soil. In the cases when they are subjected to ground motions, the piles suffer large bending moments that make it difficult to maintain their behavior within the elastic range of deformations. Aiming to make an in-depth analysis of the nonlinear behavior of elevated pile-cap foundations, a cyclic loading test was performed on a concrete 2x3 pile configuration specimen of elevated pile-cap foundation. Two results of this test, the failure mechanism and the ductile behavior, were used for the calibration of a numerical model built in OpenSees framework, by using a pushover analysis. The calibration of the numerical model enabled an in-depth study of the seismic nonlinear response of this kind of foundations. A parametric analysis was carried for this purpose, aiming to study how sensitive RC elevated pile-cap foundations are, when subjected to variations in the diameter of piles, reinforcement ratios, external loads, soil density or multilayer configurations. This analysis provided a set of ductility factors that can be used as a reference for design practices and which correspond to each of the cases analyzed.

Modelo para la integración del trazado de infraestructuras lineales en el paisaje y el medio ambiente basado en SIG

El análisis de las diferentes alternativas en la planificación y diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras debe basarse en la correcta definición de variables territoriales que sirvan como criterios para la toma de decisión y esto requiere un análisis ambiental preliminar de esas variables de calidad. En España, los estudios de viabilidad de nuevas carreteras y autovías están asociados a una fase del proceso de decisión que se corresponde con el denominado Estudio Informativo, el cual establece condicionantes físicos, ambientales, de uso del suelo y culturales que deben ser considerados en las primeras fases de la definición del trazado de un corredor de carretera. Así, la metodología más frecuente es establecer diferentes niveles de capacidad de acogida del territorio en el área de estudio con el fin de resumir las variables territoriales en mapas temáticos y facilitar el proceso de trazado de las alternativas de corredores de carretera. El paisaje es un factor limitante a tener en cuenta en la planificación y diseño de carreteras y, por tanto, deben buscarse trazados más sostenibles en relación con criterios estéticos y ecológicos del mismo. Pero este factor no es frecuentemente analizado en los Estudios Informativos e incluso, si es considerado, los estudios específicos de la calidad del paisaje (estético y ecológico) y de las formas del terreno no incorporan las recomendaciones de las guías de trazado para evitar o reducir los impactos en el paisaje. Además, los mapas de paisaje que se generan en este tipo de estudios no se corresponden con la escala de desarrollo del Estudio Informativo (1:5.000). Otro déficit común en planificación de corredores y trazados de carreteras es que no se tiene en cuenta la conectividad del paisaje durante el proceso de diseño de la carretera para prevenir la afección a los corredores de fauna existentes en el paisaje. Este déficit puede originar un posterior efecto barrera en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna y la fragmentación de sus hábitats debido a la ocupación parcial o total de las teselas de hábitats con importancia biológica para la fauna (o hábitats focales) y a la interrupción de los corredores de fauna que concentran esos movimientos dispersivos de la fauna entre teselas. El objetivo principal de esta tesis es mejorar el estudio del paisaje para prevenir su afección durante el proceso de trazado de carreteras, facilitar la conservación de los corredores de fauna (o pasillos verdes) y la localización de medidas preventivas y correctoras en términos de selección y cuantificación de factores de idoneidad a fin de reducir los impactos visuales y ecológicos en el paisaje a escala local. Concretamente, la incorporación de valores cuantitativos y bien justificados en el proceso de decisión permite incrementar la transparencia en el proceso de diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras. Con este fin, se han planteado cuatro preguntas específicas en esta investigación (1) ¿Cómo se seleccionan y evalúan los factores territoriales limitantes para localizar una nueva carretera por los profesionales españoles de planificación del territorio en relación con el paisaje? (2) ¿Cómo pueden ser definidos los corredores de fauna a partir de factores del paisaje que influyen en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna? (3) ¿Cómo pueden delimitarse y evaluarse los corredores de fauna incluyendo el comportamiento parcialmente errático en los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna y el efecto barrera de los elementos antrópicos a una escala local? (4) ¿Qué y cómo las recomendaciones de diseño de carreteras relacionadas con el paisaje y las formas del terreno pueden ser incluidas en un modelo de Sistemas de Información Geográfica (SIG) para ayudar a los ingenieros civiles durante el proceso de diseño de un trazado de carreteras bajo el punto de vista de la sostenibilidad?. Esta tesis doctoral propone nuevas metodologías que mejoran el análisis visual y ecológico del paisaje utilizando indicadores y modelos SIG para obtener alternativas de trazado que produzcan un menor impacto en el paisaje. Estas metodologías fueron probadas en un paisaje heterogéneo con una alta tasa de densidad de corzo (Capreolus capreolus L.), uno de los grandes mamíferos más atropellados en la red de carreteras españolas, y donde está planificada la construcción de una nueva autovía que atravesará la mitad del área de distribución del corzo. Inicialmente, se han analizado las variables utilizadas en 22 estudios de proyectos de planificación de corredores de carreteras promovidos por el Ministerio de Fomento entre 2006 y 2008. Estas variables se agruparon según condicionantes físicos, ambientales, de usos del suelo y culturales con el fin de comparar los valores asignados de capacidad de acogida del territorio a cada variable en los diferentes estudios revisados. Posteriormente, y como etapa previa de un análisis de conectividad, se construyó un mapa de resistencia de los movimientos dispersivos del corzo en base a la literatura y al juicio de expertos. Usando esta investigación como base, se le asignó un valor de resistencia a cada factor seleccionado para construir la matriz de resistencia, ponderándolo y combinándolo con el resto de factores usando el proceso analítico jerárquico y los operadores de lógica difusa como métodos de análisis multicriterio. Posteriormente, se diseñó una metodología SIG para delimitar claramente la extensión física de los corredores de fauna de acuerdo a un valor umbral de ancho geométrico mínimo, así como la existencia de múltiples potenciales conexiones entre cada par de teselas de hábitats presentes en el paisaje estudiado. Finalmente, se realizó un procesado de datos Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) y un modelo SIG para calcular la calidad del paisaje (estético y ecológico), las formas del terreno que presentan características similares para trazar una carretera y la acumulación de vistas de potenciales conductores y observadores de los alrededores de la nueva vía. Las principales contribuciones de esta investigación al conocimiento científico existente en el campo de la evaluación del impacto ambiental en relación al diseño de corredores y trazados de carreteras son cuatro. Primero, el análisis realizado de 22 Estudios Informativos de planificación de carreteras reveló que los métodos aplicados por los profesionales para la evaluación de la capacidad de acogida del territorio no fue suficientemente estandarizada, ya que había una falta de uniformidad en el uso de fuentes cartográficas y en las metodologías de evaluación de la capacidad de acogida del territorio, especialmente en el análisis de la calidad del paisaje estético y ecológico. Segundo, el análisis realizado en esta tesis destaca la importancia de los métodos multicriterio para estructurar, combinar y validar factores que limitan los movimientos dispersivos de la fauna en el análisis de conectividad. Tercero, los modelos SIG desarrollados Generador de alternativas de corredores o Generator of Alternative Corridors (GAC) y Eliminador de Corredores Estrechos o Narrow Corridor Eraser (NCE) pueden ser aplicados sistemáticamente y sobre una base científica en análisis de conectividad como una mejora de las herramientas existentes para la comprensión el paisaje como una red compuesta por nodos y enlaces interconectados. Así, ejecutando los modelos GAC y NCE de forma iterativa, pueden obtenerse corredores alternativos con similar probabilidad de ser utilizados por la fauna y sin que éstos presenten cuellos de botella. Cuarto, el caso de estudio llevado a cabo de prediseño de corredores y trazado de una nueva autovía ha sido novedoso incluyendo una clasificación semisupervisada de las formas del terreno, filtrando una nube de puntos LiDAR e incluyendo la nueva geometría 3D de la carretera en el Modelo Digital de Superficie (MDS). El uso combinado del procesamiento de datos LiDAR y de índices y clasificaciones geomorfológicas puede ayudar a los responsables encargados en la toma de decisiones a evaluar qué alternativas de trazado causan el menor impacto en el paisaje, proporciona una visión global de los juicios de valor más aplicados y, en conclusión, define qué medidas de integración paisajística correctoras deben aplicarse y dónde. ABSTRACT The assessment of different alternatives in road-corridor planning and layout design must be based on a number of well-defined territorial variables that serve as decision-making criteria, and this requires a high-quality preliminary environmental analysis of those quality variables. In Spain, feasibility studies for new roads and motorways are associated to a phase of the decision procedure which corresponds with the one known as the Informative Study, which establishes the physical, environmental, land-use and cultural constraints to be considered in the early stages of defining road corridor layouts. The most common methodology is to establish different levels of Territorial Carrying Capacity (TCC) in the study area in order to summarize the territorial variables on thematic maps and facilitate the tracing process of road-corridor layout alternatives. Landscape is a constraint factor that must be considered in road planning and design, and the most sustainable layouts should be sought based on aesthetic and ecological criteria. However this factor is not often analyzed in Informative Studies and even if it is, baseline studies on landscape quality (aesthetic and ecological) and landforms do not usually include the recommendations of road tracing guides designed to avoid or reduce impacts on the landscape. The resolution of the landscape maps produced in this type of studies does not comply with the recommended road design scale (1:5,000) in the regulations for the Informative Study procedure. Another common shortcoming in road planning is that landscape ecological connectivity is not considered during road design in order to avoid affecting wildlife corridors in the landscape. In the prior road planning stage, this issue could lead to a major barrier effect for fauna dispersal movements and to the fragmentation of their habitat due to the partial or total occupation of habitat patches of biological importance for the fauna (or focal habitats), and the interruption of wildlife corridors that concentrate fauna dispersal movements between patches. The main goal of this dissertation is to improve the study of the landscape and prevent negative effects during the road tracing process, and facilitate the preservation of wildlife corridors (or green ways) and the location of preventive and corrective measures by selecting and quantifying suitability factors to reduce visual and ecological landscape impacts at a local scale. Specifically the incorporation of quantitative and well-supported values in the decision-making process provides increased transparency in the road corridors and layouts design process. Four specific questions were raised in this research: (1) How are territorial constraints selected and evaluated in terms of landscape by Spanish land-planning practitioners before locating a new road? (2) How can wildlife corridors be defined based on the landscape factors influencing the dispersal movements of fauna? (3) How can wildlife corridors be delimited and assessed to include the partially erratic movements of fauna and the barrier effect of the anthropic elements at a local scale? (4) How recommendations of road design related to landscape and landforms can be included in a Geographic Information System (GIS) model to aid civil engineers during the road layout design process and support sustainable development? This doctoral thesis proposes new methodologies that improve the assessment of the visual and ecological landscape character using indicators and GIS models to obtain road layout alternatives with a lower impact on the landscape. These methodologies were tested on a case study of a heterogeneous landscape with a high density of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) –one of the large mammals most commonly hit by vehicles on the Spanish road network– and where a new motorway is planned to pass through the middle of their distribution area. We explored the variables used in 22 road-corridor planning projects sponsored by the Ministry of Public Works between 2006 and 2008. These variables were grouped into physical, environmental, land-use and cultural constraints for the purpose of comparing the TCC values assigned to each variable in the various studies reviewed. As a prior stage in a connectivity analysis, a map of resistance to roe deer dispersal movements was created based on the literature and experts judgment. Using this research as a base, each factor selected to build the matrix was assigned a resistance value and weighted and combined with the rest of the factors using the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) and fuzzy logic operators as multicriteria assessment (MCA) methods. A GIS methodology was designed to clearly delimit the physical area of wildlife corridors according to a geometric threshold width value, and the multiple potential connections between each pair of habitat patches in the landscape. A Digital Surface Model Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) dataset processing and a GIS model was performed to determine landscape quality (aesthetic and ecological) and landforms with similar characteristics for the road layout, and the cumulative viewshed of potential drivers and observers in the area surrounding the new motorway. The main contributions of this research to current scientific knowledge in the field of environmental impact assessment for road corridors and layouts design are four. First, the analysis of 22 Informative Studies on road planning revealed that the methods applied by practitioners for assessing the TCC were not sufficiently standardized due to the lack of uniformity in the cartographic information sources and the TCC valuation methodologies, especially in the analysis of the aesthetic and ecological quality of the landscape. Second, the analysis in this dissertation highlights the importance of multicriteria methods to structure, combine and validate factors that constrain wildlife dispersal movements in the connectivity analysis. Third, the “Generator of Alternative Corridors (GAC)” and “Narrow Corridor Eraser (NCE)” GIS models developed can be applied systematically and on a scientific basis in connectivity analyses to improve existing tools and understand landscape as a network composed of interconnected nodes and links. Thus, alternative corridors with similar probability of use by fauna and without bottlenecks can be obtained by iteratively running GAC and NCE models. Fourth, our case study of new motorway corridors and layouts design innovatively included semi-supervised classification of landforms, filtering of LiDAR point clouds and new 3D road geometry on the Digital Surface Model (DSM). The combined used of LiDAR data processing and geomorphological indices and classifications can help decision-makers assess which road layouts produce lower impacts on the landscape, provide an overall insight into the most commonly applied value judgments, and in conclusion, define which corrective measures should be applied in terms of landscaping, and where.

Spatial analysis of geometric design consistency and road sight distance

Because of the high number of crashes occurring on highways, it is necessary to intensify the search for new tools that help in understanding their causes. This research explores the use of a geographic information system (GIS) for an integrated analysis, taking into account two accident-related factors: design consistency (DC) (based on vehicle speed) and available sight distance (ASD) (based on visibility). Both factors require specific GIS software add-ins, which are explained. Digital terrain models (DTMs), vehicle paths, road centerlines, a speed prediction model, and crash data are integrated in the GIS. The usefulness of this approach has been assessed through a study of more than 500 crashes. From a regularly spaced grid, the terrain (bare ground) has been modeled through a triangulated irregular network (TIN). The length of the roads analyzed is greater than 100 km. Results have shown that DC and ASD could be related to crashes in approximately 4% of cases. In order to illustrate the potential of GIS, two crashes are fully analyzed: a car rollover after running off road on the right side and a rear-end collision of two moving vehicles. Although this procedure uses two software add-ins that are available only for ArcGIS, the study gives a practical demonstration of the suitability of GIS for conducting integrated studies of road safety.

Subjective QoE Analysis of HTTP Adaptive Streaming Applications

Actualmente la optimization de la calidad de experiencia (Quality of Experience- QoE) de HTTP Adaptive Streaming (HAS) de video recibe una atención creciente. Este incremento de interés proviene fundamentalmente de las carencias de las soluciones actuales HAS, que, al no ser QoE-driven, no incluyen la percepción de la calidad de los usuarios finales como una parte integral de la lógica de adaptación. Por lo tanto, la obtención de información de referencia fiable en QoE en HAS presenta retos importantes, ya que las metodologías de evaluación subjetiva de la calidad de vídeo propuestas en las normas actuales no son adecuadas para tratar con la variación temporal de la calidad que es consustancial de HAS. Esta tesis investiga la influencia de la adaptación dinámica en la calidad de la transmisión de vídeo considerando métodos de evaluación subjetiva. Tras un estudio exhaustivo del estado del arte en la evaluación subjetiva de QoE en HAS, se han resaltado los retos asociados y las líneas de investigación abiertas. Como resultado, se han seleccionado dos líneas principales de investigación: el análisis del impacto en la QoE de los parámetros de las técnicas de adaptación y la investigación de las metodologías de prueba subjetiva adecuada para evaluación de QoE en HAS. Se han llevado a cabo un conjunto de experimentos de laboratorio para investigar las cuestiones planteadas mediante la utilización de diferentes metodologáas para pruebas subjetivas. El análisis estadístico muestra que no son robustas todas las suposiciones y reivindicaciones de las referencias analizadas, en particular en lo que respecta al impacto en la QoE de la frecuencia de las variaciones de calidad, de las adaptaciones suaves o abruptas y de las oscilaciones de calidad. Por otra parte, nuestros resultados confirman la influencia de otros parámetros, como la longitud de los segmentos de vídeo y la amplitud de las oscilaciones de calidad. Los resultados también muestran que tomar en consideración las características objetivas de los contenidos puede ser beneficioso para la mejora de la QoE en HAS. Además, todos los resultados han sido validados mediante extensos análisis experimentales que han incluido estudio tanto en otros laboratorios como en crowdsourcing Por último, sobre los aspectos metodológicos de las pruebas subjetivas de QoE, se ha realizado la comparación entre los resultados experimentales obtenidos a partir de un método estandarizado basado en estímulos cortos (ACR) y un método semi continuo (desarrollado para la evaluación de secuencias prolongadas de vídeo). A pesar de algunas diferencias, el resultado de los análisis estadísticos no muestra ningún efecto significativo de la metodología de prueba. Asimismo, aunque se percibe la influencia de la presencia de audio en la evaluación de degradaciones del vídeo, no se han encontrado efectos estadísticamente significativos de dicha presencia. A partir de la ausencia de influencia del método de prueba y de la presencia de audio, se ha realizado un análisis adicional sobre el impacto de realizar comparaciones estadísticas múltiples en niveles estadísticos de importancia que aumentan la probabilidad de los errores de tipo-I (falsos positivos). Nuestros resultados muestran que, para obtener un efectos sólido en el análisis estadístico de los resultados subjetivos, es necesario aumentar el número de sujetos de las pruebas claramente por encima de los tamaños de muestras propuestos por las normas y recomendaciones actuales. ABSTRACT Optimizing the Quality of Experience (QoE) of HTTP adaptive video streaming (HAS) is receiving increasing attention nowadays. The growth of interest is mainly caused by the fact that current HAS solutions are not QoE-driven, i.e. end-user quality perception is not integral part of the adaptation logic. However, obtaining the necessary reliable ground truths on HAS QoE faces substantial challenges, since the subjective video quality assessment methodologies as proposed by current standards are not well-suited for dealing with the time-varying quality properties that are characteristic for HAS. This thesis investigates the influence of dynamic quality adaptation on the QoE of streaming video by means of subjective evaluation approaches. Based on a comprehensive survey of related work on subjective HAS QoE assessment, the related challenges and open research questions are highlighted and discussed. As a result, two main research directions are selected for further investigation: analysis of the QoE impact of different technical adaptation parameters, and investigation of testing methodologies suitable for HAS QoE evaluation. In order to investigate related research issues and questions, a set of laboratory experiments have been conducted using different subjective testing methodologies. Our statistical analysis demonstrates that not all assumptions and claims reported in the literature are robust, particularly as regards the QoE impact of switching frequency, smooth vs. abrupt switching, and quality oscillation. On the other hand, our results confirm the influence of some other parameters such as chunk length and switching amplitude on perceived quality. We also show that taking the objective characteristics of the content into account can be beneficial to improve the adaptation viewing experience. In addition, all aforementioned findings are validated by means of an extensive cross-experimental analysis that involves external laboratory and crowdsourcing studies. Finally, to address the methodological aspects of subjective QoE testing, a comparison between the experimental results obtained from a (short stimuli-based) ACR standardized method and a semi-continuous method (developed for assessment of long video sequences) has been performed. In spite of observation of some differences, the result of statistical analysis does not show any significant effect of testing methodology. Similarly, although the influence of audio presence on evaluation of video-related degradations is perceived, no statistically significant effect of audio presence could be found. Motivating by this finding (no effect of testing method and audio presence), a subsequent analysis has been performed investigating the impact of performing multiple statistical comparisons on statistical levels of significance which increase the likelihood of Type-I errors (false positives). Our results show that in order to obtain a strong effect from the statistical analysis of the subjective results, it is necessary to increase the number of test subjects well beyond the sample sizes proposed by current quality assessment standards and recommendations.

Deforestación y Pérdida de hábitat en Bosques de montaña en la Cuenca alta del Río Zamora (Loja, Ecuador)

Los bosques húmedos de montaña se encuentran reconocidos como uno de los ecosistemas más amenazados en el mundo, llegando inclusive a ser considerado como un “hotspot” por su alta diversidad y endemismo. La acelerada pérdida de cobertura vegetal de estos bosques ha ocasionado que, en la actualidad, se encuentren restringidos a una pequeña fracción de su área de distribución histórica. Pese a esto, los estudios realizados sobre cual es efecto de la deforestación, fragmentación, cambios de uso de suelo y su efecto en las comunidades de plantas presentes en este tipo de vegetación aún son muy escuetos, en comparación a los realizados con sus similares amazónicos. En este trabajo, el cual se encuentra dividido en seis capítulos, abordaremos los siguientes objetivos: a) Comprender cuál es la dinámica que han seguido los diferentes tipos de bosques montanos andinos de la cuenca del Rio Zamora, Sur de Ecuador durante entre 1976 y 2002. b) Proveer de evidencia de las tasas de deforestación y fragmentación de todos los tipos diferentes de bosques montanos andinos presentes en la cuenca del Rio Zamora, Sur de Ecuador entre 1976 y 2002. c) Determinar qué factores inducen a la fragmentación de bosques de montaña en la cuenca alta del río Zamora entre 1976 y 2002. d) Determinar cuáles son y cómo afectan los factores ambientales y socioeconómicos a la dinámica de la deforestación y regeneración (pérdida y recuperación del hábitat) sufrida por los bosques de montaña dentro de la zona de estudio y e) Determinar si la deforestación y fragmentación actúan sobre la diversidad y estructura de las comunidades de tres tipos de organismos (comunidades de árboles, comunidades de líquenes epífitos y comunidades de hepáticas epífitas). Este estudio se centró en el cuenca alta del río Zamora, localizada al sur de Ecuador entre las coordenadas 3º 00´ 53” a 4º 20´ 24.65” de latitud sur y 79º 49´58” a 78º 35´ 38” de longitud oeste, que cubre alrededor de 4300 km2 de territorio situado entre las capitales de las provincias de Loja y Zamora-Chinchipe. Con objeto de predecir la dinámica futura de la deforestación en la región de Loja y cómo se verán afectados los diferentes tipos de hábitat, así como para detectar los factores que más influyen en dicha dinámica, se han construido modelos basados en la historia de la deforestación derivados de fotografías aéreas e imágenes satelitales de tres fechas (1976, 1989 y 2002). La cuantificación de la deforestación se realizó mediante la tasa de interés compuesto y para la caracterización de la configuración espacial de los fragmentos de bosque nativo se calcularon índices de paisaje los cuales fueron calculados utilizando el programa Fragstats 3.3. Se ha clasificado el recubrimiento del terreno en forestal y no forestal y se ha modelado su evolución temporal con Modelos Lineales Generalizados Mixtos (GLMM), empleando como variables explicativas tanto variables ambientales espacialmente explícitas (altitud, orientación, pendiente, etc) como antrópicas (distancia a zonas urbanizadas, deforestadas, caminos, entre otras). Para medir el efecto de la deforestación sobre las comunidades modelo (de árboles, líquenes y hepáticas) se monitorearon 11 fragmentos de vegetación de distinto tamaño: dos fragmentos de más de cien hectáreas, tres fragmentos de entre diez y noventa ha y seis fragmentos de menos de diez hectáreas. En ellos se instalaron un total de 38 transectos y 113 cuadrantes de 20 x 20 m a distancias que se alejaban progresivamente del borde en 10, 40 y 80 m. Nuestros resultados muestran una tasa media anual de deforestación del 1,16% para todo el período de estudio, que el tipo de vegetación que más alta tasa de destrucción ha sufrido, es el páramo herbáceo, con un 2,45% anual. El análisis de los patrones de fragmentación determinó un aumento en 2002 de más del doble de fragmentos presentes en 1976, lo cual se repite en el análisis del índice de densidad promedio. El índice de proximidad media entre fragmentos muestra una reducción progresiva de la continuidad de las áreas forestadas. Si bien las formas de los fragmentos se han mantenido bastante similares a lo largo del período de estudio, la conectividad entre estos ha disminuido en un 84%. Por otro lado, de nuestros análisis se desprende que las zonas con mayor probabilidad de deforestarse son aquellas que están cercanas a zonas previamente deforestadas; la cercanía a las vías también influye significativamente en la deforestación, causando un efecto directo en la composición y estructura de las comunidades estudiadas, que en el caso de los árboles viene mediado por el tamaño del fragmento y en el caso del componente epífito (hepáticas y líquenes), viene mediado tanto por el tamaño del fragmento como por la distancia al borde del mismo. Se concluye la posibilidad de que, de mantenerse esta tendencia, este tipo de bosques desaparecerá en corto tiempo y los servicios ecosistémicos que prestan, se verán seriamente comprometidos. ABSTRACT Mountain rainforests are recognized as one of the most threatened ecosystems in the world, and have even come to be considered as a “hotspot” due to their high degree of diversity and endemism. The accelerated loss of plant cover of these forests has caused them to be restricted today to a small fraction of their area of historic distribution. In spite of this, studies done on the effect of deforestation, fragmentation, changes in soil use and their effect on the plant communities present in this type of vegetation are very brief compared to those done on their analogues in the Amazon region. In this study, which is divided into six chapters, we will address the following objectives: a) To understand what the dynamic followed by the different types of Andean mountain forests in the Zamora River watershed of southern Ecuador has been between 1976 and 2002. b) To provide evidence of the rates of deforestation and fragmentation of all the different types of Andean mountain forests existing in the upper watershed of the Zamora River between 1976 and 2002. c) To determine the factors that induces fragmentation of all different types of Andean mountain forests existing in the upper watershed of the Zamora River between 1976 and 2002. d) To determine what the environmental and anthropogenic factors are driving the dynamic of deforestation and regeneration (loss and recuperation of the habitat) suffered by the mountain forests in the area of the study and e) To determine if the deforestation and fragmentation act upon the diversity and structure of three model communities: trees, epiphytic lichens and epiphytic liverworts. This study is centered on the upper Zamora River watershed, located in southern Ecuador between 3º 00´ 53” and 4º 20´ 24.65 south latitude and 79º 49´ 58” to 78º 35´ 38” west longitude, and covers around 4,300 km2 of territory located between Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe provinces. For the purpose of predicting the future dynamic of deforestation in the Loja region and how different types of habitats will be affected, as well as detecting the environmental and socioeconomic factors that influence landscape dynamics, models were constructed based on deforestation history, derived from aerial photographs and satellite images for three dates (1976, 1989 and 2002). Quantifying the deforestation was done using the compound interest rate; to characterize the spatial configuration of fragments of native forest, landscape indices were calculated with Fragstats 3.3 program. Land cover was classified as forested and not forested and its evolution over time was modeled with Generalized Linear Mixed Models (GLMM), using spatially explicit environmental variables (altitude, orientation, slope, etc.) as well as anthropic variables (distance to urbanized, deforested areas and roads, among others) as explanatory variables. To measure the effects of fragmentation on three types of model communities (forest trees and epiphytic lichen and liverworts), 11 vegetation fragments of different sizes were monitored: two fragments of more than one hundred hectares, three fragments of between ten and ninety ha and six fragments of fewer than ten hectares . In these fragments, a total of 38 transects and 113 20 x 20 m quadrats were installed at distances that progressively moved away from the edge of the fragment by 10, 40 and 80 m. Our results show an average annual rate of deforestation of 1.16% for the entire period of the study, and that the type of vegetation that suffered the highest rate of destruction was grassy paramo, with an annual rate of 2.45%. The analysis of fragmentation patterns determined the number of fragments in 2002 more than doubled the number of fragments present in 1976, and the same occurred for the average density index. The variation of the average proximity index among fragments showed a progressive reduction of the continuity of forested areas. Although fragment shapes have remained quite similar over the period of the study, connectivity among them has diminished by 84%. On the other hand, it emerged from our analysis that the areas of greatest probability of deforestation were those that are close to previously deforested areas; proximity to roads also significantly favored the deforestation causing a direct effect on the composition of our model communities, that in the case of forest trees is determined by the size of the fragment, and in the case of the epiphyte communities (liverworts and lichens), is determined, by the size of the fragment as well as the distance to edge. A subject under discussion is the possibility that if this tendency continues, this type of forest will disappear in a short time, and the ecological services it provides, will be seriously endangered.

Analysis and optimization of trajectories for Ballistic Missiles Interception

Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles are capable of placing a nuclear warhead at more than 5,000 km away from its launching base. With the lethal power of a nuclear warhead a whole city could be wiped out by a single weapon causing millions of deaths. This means that the threat posed to any country from a single ICBM captured by a terrorist group or launched by a 'rogue' state is huge. This threat is increasing as more countries are achieving nuclear and advanced launcher capabilities. In order to suppress or at least reduce this threat the United States created the National Missile Defense System which involved, among other systems, the development of long-range interceptors whose aim is to destroy incoming ballistic missiles in their midcourse phase. The Ballistic Missile Defense is a high-profile topic that has been the focus of political controversy lately when the U.S. decided to expand the Ballistic Missile system to Europe, with the opposition of Russia. However the technical characteristics of this system are mostly unknown by the general public. The Interception of an ICBM using a long range Interceptor Missile as intended within the Ground-Based Missile Defense System by the American National Missile Defense (NMD) implies a series of problems of incredible complexity: - The incoming missile has to be detected almost immediately after launch. - The incoming missile has to be tracked along its trajectory with a great accuracy. - The Interceptor Missile has to implement a fast and accurate guidance algorithm in order to reach the incoming missile as soon as possible. - The Kinetic Kill Vehicle deployed by the interceptor boost vehicle has to be able to detect the reentry vehicle once it has been deployed by ICBM, when it offers a very low infrared signature, in order to perform a final rendezvous manoeuvre. - The Kinetic Kill Vehicle has to be able to discriminate the reentry vehicle from the surrounding debris and decoys. - The Kinetic Kill Vehicle has to be able to implement an accurate guidance algorithm in order to perform a kinetic interception (direct collision) of the reentry vehicle, at relative speeds of more than 10 km/s. All these problems are being dealt simultaneously by the Ground-Based Missile Defense System that is developing very complex and expensive sensors, communications and control centers and long-range interceptors (Ground-Based Interceptor Missile) including a Kinetic Kill Vehicle. Among all the technical challenges involved in this interception scenario, this thesis focuses on the algorithms required for the guidance of the Interceptor Missile and the Kinetic Kill Vehicle in order to perform the direct collision with the ICBM. The involved guidance algorithms are deeply analysed in this thesis in part III where conventional guidance strategies are reviewed and optimal guidance algorithms are developed for this interception problem. The generation of a realistic simulation of the interception scenario between an ICBM and a Ground Based Interceptor designed to destroy it was considered as necessary in order to be able to compare different guidance strategies with meaningful results. As a consequence, a highly representative simulator for an ICBM and a Kill Vehicle has been implemented, as detailed in part II, and the generation of these simulators has also become one of the purposes of this thesis. In summary, the main purposes of this thesis are: - To develop a highly representative simulator of an interception scenario between an ICBM and a Kill Vehicle launched from a Ground Based Interceptor. -To analyse the main existing guidance algorithms both for the ascent phase and the terminal phase of the missiles. Novel conclusions of these analyses are obtained. - To develop original optimal guidance algorithms for the interception problem. - To compare the results obtained using the different guidance strategies, assess the behaviour of the optimal guidance algorithms, and analyse the feasibility of the Ballistic Missile Defense system in terms of guidance (part IV). As a secondary objective, a general overview of the state of the art in terms of ballistic missiles and anti-ballistic missile defence is provided (part I).

Conservación de plantas regeneradas in vitro y análisis de la variación somaclonal de Cinchona officinalis, Linneo

Cinchona officinalis (Rubiaceae), especie endémica del Valle de Loja, ubicado en la región sur del Ecuador, es un recurso forestal de importancia medicinal y ecológica, además la especie ha sido catalogada como planta nacional y es un ícono de la región sur por su aporte a la farmacopea mundial. Esta especie, entre los siglos XVII-XIX sufrió una gran presión en sus poblaciones debido a la extracción masiva de la corteza para la cura del paludismo. Aunque la actividad extractiva generó grandes ingresos a la Corona Española y a la región Sur del Ecuador, ésta fue poco o nada sustentable ecológicamente, provocando la desaparición de la especie en muchos sitios de la provincia, pues, en su momento, no se consideraron alternativas de recuperación de las poblaciones naturales. Actualmente la extracción y consumo de la corteza en la zona de origen es baja o nula, sin embargo esta zona enfrenta nuevas amenazas. La deforestación a causa de proyectos de desarrollo en infraestructuras, la práctica de actividades agrícolas y de ganadería, y los efectos del cambio climático han ocasionado, en estos últimos años, la fragmentación de los ecosistemas. La mayoría de los bosques del sur del Ecuador se han convertido en parches aislados (los bosques en los que se distribuye C. officinalis no son la excepción) siendo esta la principal causa para que la especie se encuentre en estado de amenaza. Los individuos de la especie tienen una alta capacidad de rebrote y producen semillas durante todo el año; sin embargo la capacidad germinativa y la tasa de sobrevivencia son bajas, además de estas dificultades la especie requiere de la asociación con otras especies vegetales para su desarrollo, lo cual ha limitado su distribución en pequeños parches aislados. Con esta problemática, la recuperación natural de las poblaciones es una necesidad evidente. Varios trabajos y esfuerzos previos se han realizado a nivel local: i. Identificación de la distribución actual y potencial; ii. Determinación de la fenología y fructificación iii. Programas de educación ambiental, iv. Análisis moleculares para determinar la diversidad genética. v. Ensayos de propagación vegetativa; y otras acciones de tipo cultural. No obstante, el estado de conservación y manejo de las poblaciones naturales no ha mejorado significativamente, siendo necesaria la aplicación de estrategias integradas de conservación in situ y ex situ, que permitan la recuperación y permanencia de las poblaciones naturales a largo plazo. El presente trabajo tiene como fin dar alternativas para el cultivo de tejidos in vitro de Cinchona officinalis centrados en la propagación masiva a partir de semillas, análisis de la fidelidad genética y alternativas de conservación de tejidos. Los objetivos específicos que se plantean son: i. Analizar el proceso de germinación y proliferación in vitro. ii. Evaluar la estabilidad genética en explantes cultivados in vitro, mediante marcadores ISSR. iii. Establecer protocolos de conservación in vitro mediante limitación del crecimiento y criopreservación de segmentos nodales y yemas. Los resultados más significativos de esta investigación fueron: i. El desarrollo de protocolos eficientes para mejorar los porcentajes de germinación y la proliferación de brotes en explantos cultivados in vitro. Para evaluar el efecto de los fenoles sobre la germinación, se determinó el contenido total de fenoles y el porcentaje de germinación en semillas de C. officinalis comparados con una especie de control, C. pubescens. Para inducir a proliferación, se utilizaron segmentos nodales de plántulas germinadas in vitro en medio Gamborg (1968) suplementado con diferentes combinaciones de reguladores de crecimiento (auxinas y citoquininas). Los resultados obtenidos sugieren que el contenido de compuestos fenólicos es alto en las semillas de C. officinalis en comparación con las semillas de C. pubescens. Estos fenoles pueden eliminarse con peróxido de hidrógeno o con lavados de agua para estimular la germinación. La formación de nuevos brotes y callos en la mayoría de las combinaciones de reguladores de crecimiento se observó en un período de 45 días. El mayor porcentaje de proliferación de brotes, formación de callos y presencia de brotes adventicios se obtuvo en medio Gamborg (B5) suplementado con 5.0 mg/l 6-bencil-aminopurina y 3.0 mg/l de ácido indol-3-butírico. ii. La evaluación de la fidelidad genética de los explantes obtenidos con distintas combinaciones de reguladores de crecimiento vegetal y diversos subcultivos. Se realizó el seguimiento a los explantes obtenidos de la fase anterior, determinando el índice de multiplicación y analizando la fidelidad genética de los tejidos obtenidos por las dos vías regenerativas: brotación directa y regeneración de brotes a partir de callos. Este análisis se realizó por amplificación mediante PCR de las secuencias ubicadas entre microsatélites-ISSR (Inter simple sequence repeat). El medio Gamborg (B5) con 3.0 mg/l de AIB y 5.0 mg/l de BAP usado como medio de inducción en la primera etapa de cultivo generó el mayor índice de proliferación (11.5). Un total de 13 marcadores ISSR fueron analizados, 6 de éstos fueron polimórficos. El mayor porcentaje de variación somaclonal fue inducido en presencia de 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D combinado con 0.2 mg/l Kin con un 1.8% en el segundo sub-cultivo de regeneración, la cual incrementó a 3.6% en el tercer sub-cultivo. Todas las combinaciones con presencia de 2,4-D produjeron la formación de callos y presentaron variación genética. Por su parte la fidelidad genética se mantuvo en los sistemas de propagación directa a través de la formación de brotes a partir de meristemos preformados. iii. El establecimiento de protocolos de conservación in vitro y crioconservación de segmentos nodales y yemas. Para la conservación limitando el crecimiento, se cultivaron segmentos nodales en los medios MS y B5 en tres concentraciones de sus componentes (25, 50 y 100%); y en medio B5 más agentes osmóticos como el manitol, sorbitol y sacarosa en diferentes concentraciones (2, 4 y 8%); los cultivos se mantuvieron por 12 meses sin subcultivos. Para el establecimiento de protocolos para la crioconservación (paralización del metabolismo) se usaron yemas axilares y apicales a las cuales se les aplicaron los métodos de encapsulación-deshidratación y vitrificación. La efectividad de los protocolos usados se determinó en función de la sobrevivencia, reducción del crecimiento y regeneración. Los resultados obtenidos en este apartado reflejan que un crecimiento limitado puede mantener tejidos durante 12 meses de almacenamiento, usando medio B5 más manitol entre 2 y 8%. En los protocolos de crioconservación, se obtuvo el mayor porcentaje de recuperación tras la congelación en NL en el tratamiento control seguido por el método crioprotector de encapsulación-deshidratación. Este trabajo brinda alternativas para la propagación de C. officinalis bajo condiciones in vitro, partiendo de material vegetal con alta diversidad genética. El material propagado puede ser fuente de germoplasma para la recuperación y reforzamiento de las poblaciones naturales así como una alternativa de producción para las comunidades locales debido a la demanda actual de corteza de la zona de origen para la elaboración de agua tónica. ABSTRACT Cinchona officinalis (Rubiaceae) is endemic to the Loja Valley, located in the southern area of Ecuador. The importance of this plant as medical and ecological resource is so great that it has been designated as the national flower and is an icon of the southern region for its contribution to the world pharmacopoeia. Between XVII-XIX centuries its population suffered great reduction due to massive harvesting of the bark to cure malaria. Although extraction activity generated large revenues to the Spanish Crown and the southern region of Ecuador, this was not ecologically sustainable, causing the disappearance of the species in many areas of the province, because during that time alternatives to prevent extinction and recover natural populations were not taken in account. Currently the extraction and consumption of bark in the area of origin is almost absent, but this species faces new threats. Deforestation due to infrastructure development, the practice of farming and ranching, and the effects of climate change had led to the fragmentation of ecosystems during the recent years. Most of the forests of southern Ecuador have become isolated patches, including those where C. officinalis is diffused. The lack of suitable habitat is today the main threat for the species. The species has a high capacity for regeneration and produces seeds throughout the year, but the germination rate is low and the growth is slow. In addition, the species requires the association with other plant species to develop. All these factors had limited its distribution to small isolated patches. The natural recovery of populations is essential to face this problem. Several studies and previous efforts had been made at local level: i. Identification of current and potential distribution; ii. Phenology determination. iii. Environmental education programs, iv. Molecular analisis to determine the genetic diversity. v. Testing of vegetative propagation; and other actions of cultural nature. Despite these efforts, the state of conservation and management of natural populations has not improved significantly. Implementation of integrated in situ and ex situ conservation strategies for the recovery and permanence of long-term natural populations is still needed. This work aims to provide alternatives for in vitro culture of tissue of Cinchona officinalis focused on mass propagation from seeds, genetic fidelity analysis and tissue conservation alternatives. The specific aims are: i. Analyze the process of germination and proliferation in vitro. ii. To evaluate the genetic stability of the explants cultured in vitro by ISSR markers. iii. Establish protocols for in vitro conservation by limiting growth and cryopreservation of nodal segments and buds. The most significant results of this research were: i. The development of efficient protocols to improve germination rates and proliferation of buds in explants cultured in vitro. To study the effect of phenols on germination, the total phenolic content and percentage germination was measured in C. officinalis and in a control species, C. pubescens, for comparison. The content of phenolic compounds in C. officinalis seeds is higher than in C. pubescens. These phenols can be removed with hydrogen peroxide or water washes to stimulate germination. To analyze the regeneration, we used nodal explants from seedlings germinated in vitro on Gamborg medium (1968) supplemented with different combinations of growth regulators (auxins and cytokinins) to induce proliferation. The formation of new shoots and calluses was observed within a period of 45 days in most combinations of growth regulators. The highest percentage of shoot proliferation, callus formation and adventitious buds were obtained in B5 medium supplemented with 5.0 mg/l 6-benzyl-aminopurine and 3.0 mg/l indole-3-butyric acid. ii. Evaluating genetic fidelity explants obtained with various combinations of plant growth regulators and different subcultures. The genetic fidelity was analyzed in tissues obtained by the two regenerative pathways: direct sprouting and shoot regeneration from callus. This analysis was performed by PCR amplification of the sequences located between microsatellite-ISSR (Inter Simple Sequence Repeat). Among a total of 13 ISSR markers analyzed, 6 were polymorphic. The highest percentage of somaclonal variation was induced in the presence of 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D combined with 0.2 mg/l Kin with 1.8% in the second round of regeneration, and increased to 3.6% in the third round. The presence of 2,4-D induced genetic variation in all the combinations of growth regulators. Meanwhile genetic fidelity remained systems propagation through direct shoot formation from meristems preformed. iii. Establishing conservation protocols in vitro and cryoconservation of nodal segments and buds. For medium-term conservation (limited growth) nodal segments were cultured in MS and B5 media at three concentrations (25, 50 and 100%); we tested B5 medium with different concentrations of osmotic agents such as mannitol, sorbitol and sucrose (2, 4 and 8%); cultures were maintained for 12 months with regular subculturing. To establish protocols for cryoconservation (cessation of metabolism) different methods of encapsulation-dehydration and vitrification were applied to axillary and apical buds. The effectiveness of the used protocols is determined based on the survival, growth and regeneration success. The results show that these tissues can be maintained in storage for 12 months, using B5 medium plus mannitol between 2 and 8%. The cryoconservation protocol with highest percentage of recovery was obtained by contral treatment, followed by freezing in NL with encapsulation-dehydration method. This work provides alternatives for the propagation in vitro of C. officinalis, starting from plant material with high genetic diversity. The obtained material represents a source of germplasm to support the recovery and strengthening of natural populations as well as a creation of alternative sources for local communities due to the current demand of bark for the preparation of tonic water.

Automated wordlength optimization framework for multi-source statistical interval-based analysis of nonlinear systems with control-flow structures

El uso de aritmética de punto fijo es una opción de diseño muy extendida en sistemas con fuertes restricciones de área, consumo o rendimiento. Para producir implementaciones donde los costes se minimicen sin impactar negativamente en la precisión de los resultados debemos llevar a cabo una asignación cuidadosa de anchuras de palabra. Encontrar la combinación óptima de anchuras de palabra en coma fija para un sistema dado es un problema combinatorio NP-hard al que los diseñadores dedican entre el 25 y el 50 % del ciclo de diseño. Las plataformas hardware reconfigurables, como son las FPGAs, también se benefician de las ventajas que ofrece la aritmética de coma fija, ya que éstas compensan las frecuencias de reloj más bajas y el uso más ineficiente del hardware que hacen estas plataformas respecto a los ASICs. A medida que las FPGAs se popularizan para su uso en computación científica los diseños aumentan de tamaño y complejidad hasta llegar al punto en que no pueden ser manejados eficientemente por las técnicas actuales de modelado de señal y ruido de cuantificación y de optimización de anchura de palabra. En esta Tesis Doctoral exploramos distintos aspectos del problema de la cuantificación y presentamos nuevas metodologías para cada uno de ellos: Las técnicas basadas en extensiones de intervalos han permitido obtener modelos de propagación de señal y ruido de cuantificación muy precisos en sistemas con operaciones no lineales. Nosotros llevamos esta aproximación un paso más allá introduciendo elementos de Multi-Element Generalized Polynomial Chaos (ME-gPC) y combinándolos con una técnica moderna basada en Modified Affine Arithmetic (MAA) estadístico para así modelar sistemas que contienen estructuras de control de flujo. Nuestra metodología genera los distintos caminos de ejecución automáticamente, determina las regiones del dominio de entrada que ejercitarán cada uno de ellos y extrae los momentos estadísticos del sistema a partir de dichas soluciones parciales. Utilizamos esta técnica para estimar tanto el rango dinámico como el ruido de redondeo en sistemas con las ya mencionadas estructuras de control de flujo y mostramos la precisión de nuestra aproximación, que en determinados casos de uso con operadores no lineales llega a tener tan solo una desviación del 0.04% con respecto a los valores de referencia obtenidos mediante simulación. Un inconveniente conocido de las técnicas basadas en extensiones de intervalos es la explosión combinacional de términos a medida que el tamaño de los sistemas a estudiar crece, lo cual conlleva problemas de escalabilidad. Para afrontar este problema presen tamos una técnica de inyección de ruidos agrupados que hace grupos con las señales del sistema, introduce las fuentes de ruido para cada uno de los grupos por separado y finalmente combina los resultados de cada uno de ellos. De esta forma, el número de fuentes de ruido queda controlado en cada momento y, debido a ello, la explosión combinatoria se minimiza. También presentamos un algoritmo de particionado multi-vía destinado a minimizar la desviación de los resultados a causa de la pérdida de correlación entre términos de ruido con el objetivo de mantener los resultados tan precisos como sea posible. La presente Tesis Doctoral también aborda el desarrollo de metodologías de optimización de anchura de palabra basadas en simulaciones de Monte-Cario que se ejecuten en tiempos razonables. Para ello presentamos dos nuevas técnicas que exploran la reducción del tiempo de ejecución desde distintos ángulos: En primer lugar, el método interpolativo aplica un interpolador sencillo pero preciso para estimar la sensibilidad de cada señal, y que es usado después durante la etapa de optimización. En segundo lugar, el método incremental gira en torno al hecho de que, aunque es estrictamente necesario mantener un intervalo de confianza dado para los resultados finales de nuestra búsqueda, podemos emplear niveles de confianza más relajados, lo cual deriva en un menor número de pruebas por simulación, en las etapas iniciales de la búsqueda, cuando todavía estamos lejos de las soluciones optimizadas. Mediante estas dos aproximaciones demostramos que podemos acelerar el tiempo de ejecución de los algoritmos clásicos de búsqueda voraz en factores de hasta x240 para problemas de tamaño pequeño/mediano. Finalmente, este libro presenta HOPLITE, una infraestructura de cuantificación automatizada, flexible y modular que incluye la implementación de las técnicas anteriores y se proporciona de forma pública. Su objetivo es ofrecer a desabolladores e investigadores un entorno común para prototipar y verificar nuevas metodologías de cuantificación de forma sencilla. Describimos el flujo de trabajo, justificamos las decisiones de diseño tomadas, explicamos su API pública y hacemos una demostración paso a paso de su funcionamiento. Además mostramos, a través de un ejemplo sencillo, la forma en que conectar nuevas extensiones a la herramienta con las interfaces ya existentes para poder así expandir y mejorar las capacidades de HOPLITE. ABSTRACT Using fixed-point arithmetic is one of the most common design choices for systems where area, power or throughput are heavily constrained. In order to produce implementations where the cost is minimized without negatively impacting the accuracy of the results, a careful assignment of word-lengths is required. The problem of finding the optimal combination of fixed-point word-lengths for a given system is a combinatorial NP-hard problem to which developers devote between 25 and 50% of the design-cycle time. Reconfigurable hardware platforms such as FPGAs also benefit of the advantages of fixed-point arithmetic, as it compensates for the slower clock frequencies and less efficient area utilization of the hardware platform with respect to ASICs. As FPGAs become commonly used for scientific computation, designs constantly grow larger and more complex, up to the point where they cannot be handled efficiently by current signal and quantization noise modelling and word-length optimization methodologies. In this Ph.D. Thesis we explore different aspects of the quantization problem and we present new methodologies for each of them: The techniques based on extensions of intervals have allowed to obtain accurate models of the signal and quantization noise propagation in systems with non-linear operations. We take this approach a step further by introducing elements of MultiElement Generalized Polynomial Chaos (ME-gPC) and combining them with an stateof- the-art Statistical Modified Affine Arithmetic (MAA) based methodology in order to model systems that contain control-flow structures. Our methodology produces the different execution paths automatically, determines the regions of the input domain that will exercise them, and extracts the system statistical moments from the partial results. We use this technique to estimate both the dynamic range and the round-off noise in systems with the aforementioned control-flow structures. We show the good accuracy of our approach, which in some case studies with non-linear operators shows a 0.04 % deviation respect to the simulation-based reference values. A known drawback of the techniques based on extensions of intervals is the combinatorial explosion of terms as the size of the targeted systems grows, which leads to scalability problems. To address this issue we present a clustered noise injection technique that groups the signals in the system, introduces the noise terms in each group independently and then combines the results at the end. In this way, the number of noise sources in the system at a given time is controlled and, because of this, the combinato rial explosion is minimized. We also present a multi-way partitioning algorithm aimed at minimizing the deviation of the results due to the loss of correlation between noise terms, in order to keep the results as accurate as possible. This Ph.D. Thesis also covers the development of methodologies for word-length optimization based on Monte-Carlo simulations in reasonable times. We do so by presenting two novel techniques that explore the reduction of the execution times approaching the problem in two different ways: First, the interpolative method applies a simple but precise interpolator to estimate the sensitivity of each signal, which is later used to guide the optimization effort. Second, the incremental method revolves on the fact that, although we strictly need to guarantee a certain confidence level in the simulations for the final results of the optimization process, we can do it with more relaxed levels, which in turn implies using a considerably smaller amount of samples, in the initial stages of the process, when we are still far from the optimized solution. Through these two approaches we demonstrate that the execution time of classical greedy techniques can be accelerated by factors of up to ×240 for small/medium sized problems. Finally, this book introduces HOPLITE, an automated, flexible and modular framework for quantization that includes the implementation of the previous techniques and is provided for public access. The aim is to offer a common ground for developers and researches for prototyping and verifying new techniques for system modelling and word-length optimization easily. We describe its work flow, justifying the taken design decisions, explain its public API and we do a step-by-step demonstration of its execution. We also show, through an example, the way new extensions to the flow should be connected to the existing interfaces in order to expand and improve the capabilities of HOPLITE.

Multicriteria decision analysis applied to cover crop species andcultivars selection

Cover crop selection should be oriented to the achievement of specific agrosystem benefits. The covercrop, catch crop, green manure and fodder uses were identified as possible targets for selection. Theobjective was to apply multi-criteria decision analysis to evaluate different species (Hordeum vulgareL., Secale cereale L., ×Triticosecale Whim, Sinapis alba L., Vicia sativa L.) and cultivars according to theirsuitability to be used as cover crops in each of the uses. A field trial with 20 cultivars of the five specieswas conducted in Central Spain during two seasons (October?April). Measurements of ground cover, cropbiomass, N uptake, N derived from the atmosphere, C/N, dietary fiber content and residue quality werecollected. Aggregation of these variables through utility functions allowed ranking species and cultivarsfor each usage. Grasses were the most suitable for the cover crop, catch crop and fodder uses, while thevetches were the best as green manures. The mustard attained high ranks as cover and catch crop the firstseason, but the second decayed due to low performance in cold winters. Mustard and vetches obtainedworse rankings than grasses as fodder. Hispanic was the most suitable barley cultivar as cover and catchcrop, and Albacete as fodder. The triticale Titania attained the highest rank as cover and catch crop andfodder. Vetches Aitana and BGE014897 showed good aptitudes as green manures and catch crops. Thisanalysis allowed comparison among species and cultivars and might provide relevant information forcover crops selection and management.

Field-winding fault detection in synchronous machines with static excitation through frequency response analysis.

Frequency Response Analysis is a well-known technique for the diagnosis of power transformers. Currently, this technique is under research for its application in rotary electrical machines. This paper presents significant results on the application of Frequency Response Analysis to fault detection in field winding of synchronous machines with static excitation. First, the influence of the rotor position on the frequency response is evaluated. Secondly, some relevant test results are shown regarding ground fault and inter-turn fault detection in field windings at standstill condition. The influence of the fault resistance value is also taken into account. This paper also studies the applicability of Frequency Response Analysis in fault detection in field windings while rotating. This represents an important feature because some defects only appear with the machine rated speed. Several laboratory test results show the applicability of this fault detection technique in field windings at full speed with no excitation current.

Genetic analysis of the mouse X inactivation center defines an 80-kb multifunction domain

Dosage compensation in mammals occurs by X inactivation, a silencing mechanism regulated in cis by the X inactivation center (Xic). In response to developmental cues, the Xic orchestrates events of X inactivation, including chromosome counting and choice, initiation, spread, and establishment of silencing. It remains unclear what elements make up the Xic. We previously showed that the Xic is contained within a 450-kb sequence that includes Xist, an RNA-encoding gene required for X inactivation. To characterize the Xic further, we performed deletional analysis across the 450-kb region by yeast-artificial-chromosome fragmentation and phage P1 cloning. We tested Xic deletions for cis inactivation potential by using a transgene (Tg)-based approach and found that an 80-kb subregion also enacted somatic X inactivation on autosomes. Xist RNA coated the autosome but skipped the Xic Tg, raising the possibility that X chromosome domains escape inactivation by excluding Xist RNA binding. The autosomes became late-replicating and hypoacetylated on histone H4. A deletion of the Xist 5′ sequence resulted in the loss of somatic X inactivation without abolishing Xist expression in undifferentiated cells. Thus, Xist expression in undifferentiated cells can be separated genetically from somatic silencing. Analysis of multiple Xic constructs and insertion sites indicated that long-range Xic effects can be generalized to different autosomes, thereby supporting the feasibility of a Tg-based approach for studying X inactivation.