Geomorphology reveals active decollement geometry in the central Himalayan seismic gap

The similar to 700-km-long ``central seismic gap'' is the most prominent segment of the Himalayan front not to have ruptured in a major earthquake during the last 200-500 yr. This prolonged seismic quiescence has led to the proposition that this region, with a population >10 million, is overdue for a great earthquake. Despite the region's recognized seismic risk, the geometry of faults likely to host large earthquakes remains poorly understood. Here, we place new constraints on the spatial distribution of rock uplift within the western similar to 400 km of the central seismic gap using topographic and river profile analyses together with basinwide erosion rate estimates from cosmogenic Be-10. The data sets show a distinctive physiographic transition at the base of the high Himalaya in the state of Uttarakhand, India, characterized by abrupt strike-normal increases in channel steepness and a tenfold increase in erosion rates. When combined with previously published geophysical imaging and seismicity data sets, we interpret the observed spatial distribution of erosion rates and channel steepness to reflect the landscape response to spatially variable rock uplift due to a structurally coherent ramp-flat system of the Main Himalayan Thrust. Although it remains unresolved whether the kinematics of the Main Himalayan Thrust ramp involve an emergent fault or duplex, the landscape and erosion rate patterns suggest that the decollement beneath the state of Uttarakhand provides a sufficiently large and coherent fault segment capable of hosting a great earthquake.

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) Dating of Sediments from Himalaya

Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating gives the age of most recent daylight exposure or heating of samples to >400 degrees C or the formation events of authigenic minerals. These correspond to the age of sedimentation and burial, ages of thermal events like contact heating by lava flows and heating during faulting and sand dyke formation, and the formation of a mineral via chemical precipitation. With the first observation of OSL in 1985, this method now occupies centre stage in Quaternary Geochronology. The use of OSL method for sediments from Himalaya began over three decades ago. The method has since provided chronology for a variety of events, such as past glaciation events, formation ages of river terraces, paleo-lacustrine deposits, landslides, floods, seismic events with substantive new insights into timing and style of geological processes. Theoretically, the dating range of method is present to a Million years, and this critically depends on two factors, viz, luminescence properties of mineral and their radiation environments. The general working range using quartz is 200ka, and using feldspars is up to Brunhes Matuyam Boundary. Extensions beyond this limit are currently being explored.

A Short Review on Lu-Hf Isotope System in Zircon: Implications for Crustal Evolution

Zircon has been recognized as the unaltered part of the Earth's history which preserves nearly 4 billion year record of earth's evolution. Zircon preserves igneous and metamorphic processes during its formation and remains unaffected by sedimentary processes and crustal recycling. U-Pb and Lu-Hf in zircon work as geochronometer and geochemical tracer respectively. Zircon provide valuable information about the source composition of the rocks and the intrinsic details of an unseen crust-mantle processes. The world wide data of U-Pb and Lu-Hf isotope systems in zircon reveal crustal evolution through geological history. Moreover, the U-Pb age pattern of zircons show distinct peaks attributed to preservation of crustal rocks or mountain building during supercontinent assembly. The histogram of continental crust preservation shows that nearly one-third of continental crust was formed during the Archean, almost 20% was formed during Paleoproterozoic and 14% in last 400 Ma.

Crustal Evolution of Kolli-Massif, Southern India

Southern India is a collage of numerous crustal fragments formed since the Archean (2500 Ma ago) and reworked several times during the geological history. A close look at these terrains provides a window to understand the crustal evolutionary processes experienced by the continental crust in the past, such as crustal growth (formation of crust through addition of new magma) and crustal reworking (modification of an already existing crust). Here we discuss the evolutionary history of such a crustal fragment from the Southern Granulite Terrain (SGT) in peninsular India, namely Kolli-massif. Geology, structural deformation through time, and the implications in crustal assembly of southern India are exponded.

Two-Phase Flow With Phase Change in Porous Channels

Phase change heat transfer in porous media finds applications in various geological flows and modern heat pipes. We present a study to show the effect of phase change on heat transfer in a porous channel. We show that the ratio of Jakob numbers based on wall superheat and inlet fluid subcooling governs the liquid-vapor interface location in the porous channel and below a critical value of the ratio, the liquid penetrates all the way to the extent of the channel in the flow direction. In such cases, the Nusselt number is higher due to the proximity of the liquid-vapor interface to the heat loads. For higher heat loads or lower subcooling of the liquid, the liquid-vapor interface is pushed toward the inlet, and heat transfer occurs through a wider vapor region thus resulting in a lower Nusselt number. This study is relevant in the designing of efficient two-phase heat exchangers such as capillary suction based heat pipes where a prior estimation of the interface location for the maximum heat load is required to ensure that the liquid-vapor interface is always inside the porous block for its operation.

Disorder, oscillatory dynamics and state switching: the role of c-Myc

In this paper, using the intrinsically disordered oncoprotein Myc as an example, we present a mathematical model to help explain how protein oscillatory dynamics can influence state switching. Earlier studies have demonstrated that, while Myc overexpression can facilitate state switching and transform a normal cell into a cancer phenotype, its downregulation can reverse state-switching. A fundamental aspect of the model is that a Myc threshold determines cell fate in cells expressing p53. We demonstrate that a non-cooperative positive feedback loop coupled with Myc sequestration at multiple binding sites can generate bistable Myc levels. Normal quiescent cells with Myc levels below the threshold can respond to mitogenic signals to activate the cyclin/cdk oscillator for limited cell divisions but the p53/Mdm2 oscillator remains nonfunctional. In response to stress, the p53/Mdm2 oscillator is activated in pulses that are critical to DNA repair. But if stress causes Myc levels to cross the threshold, Myc inactivates the p53/Mdm2 oscillator, abrogates p53 pulses, and pushes the cyclin/cdk oscillator into overdrive sustaining unchecked proliferation seen in cancer. However, if Myc is downregulated, the cyclin/cdk oscillator is inactivated and the p53/Mdm2 oscillator is reset and the cancer phenotype is reversed. (C) 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Appraisal of groundwater resource in Holocene soil deposits by resistivity, hydrochemical and granulomerial studies in the Gulf of Mannar Coast from Southern India

This article is aimed to delineate groundwater sources in Holocene deposits area in the Gulf of Mannar Coast from Southern India. For this purpose 2-D electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), hydrochemical and granulomerical studies were carried out and integrated to identify hydrogeological structures and portable groundwater resource in shallow depths which in general appears in the coastal tracts. The 2-D ERT was used to determine the two-dimensional subsurface geological formations by multicore cable with Wenner array. Low resistivity of 1-5 Omega m for saline water appeared due to calcite at the depth of about 5 m below the ground level (bgl). Sea water intrusion was observed around the maximum resistivity as 5 Omega m at the 8 m depth, bgl in the calcite environs, but the calcareous sandstone layer shows around 15-64 Omega m at the 6 m depth, bgl. The hydrochemical variation of TDS, HCO3-, Cl-, Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ concentrations was observed for the saline and sea water intrusion in the groundwater system. The granulometic analysis shows that the study area was under the sea between 5400 and 3000 year ago. The events of ice melting an unnatural ice-stone rain/hail among 5000-4000 years ago resulted in the inundation of sea over the area and deposits of late Holocene marine transgression formation up to Puthukottai quartzite region for a stretch of around 17 km.

Characterization of silver-kaolinite (AgK): an adsorbent for long-lived I-129 species

Bentonite is a preferred buffer and backfill material for deep geological disposal of high-level nuclear waste (HLW). Bentonite does not retain anions by virtue of its negatively charged basal surface. Imparting anion retention ability to bentonite is important to enable the expansive clay to retain long-lived I-129 (iodine-129; half-life = 16 million years) species that may escape from the HLW geological repository. Silver-kaolinite (AgK) material is prepared as an additive to improve the iodide retention capacity of bentonite. The AgK is prepared by heating kaolinite-silver nitrate mix at 400 degrees C to study the kaolinite influence on the transition metal ion when reacting at its dehydroxylation temperature. Thermo gravimetric-Evolved Gas Detection analysis, X-ray diffraction analysis, X-ray photo electron spectroscopy and electron probe micro analysis indicated that silver occurs as AgO/Ag2O surface coating on thermally reacting kaolinite with silver nitrate at 400 degrees C.

Microhyla laterite sp nov., A New Species of Microhyla Tschudi, 1838 (Amphibia: Anura: Microhylidae) from a Laterite Rock Formation in South West India

In recent times, several new species of amphibians have been described from India. Many of these discoveries are from biodiversity hotspots or from within protected areas. We undertook amphibian surveys in human dominated landscapes outside of protected areas in south western region of India between years 2013-2015. We encountered a new species of Microhyla which is described here as Microhyla laterite sp. nov. It was delimited using molecular, morphometric and bioacoustics comparisons. Microhyla laterite sp. nov. appears to be restricted to areas of the West coast of India dominated by laterite rock formations. The laterite rock formations date as far back as the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary and are considered to be wastelands in-spite of their intriguing geological history. We identify knowledge gaps in our understanding of the genus Microhyla from the Indian subcontinent and suggest ways to bridge them.

Source Model for Blasting Vibration

By analyzing and comparing the experimental data, the point source moment theory and the cavity theory, it is concluded that the vibrating signals away from the blasting explosive come mainly from the natural vibrations of the geological structures near the broken blasting area. The source impulses are not spread mainly by the inelastic properties (such as through media damping, as believed to be the case by many researchers) of the medium in the propagation pass, but by this structure. Then an equivalent source model for the blasting vibrations of a fragmenting blasting is proposed, which shows the important role of the impulse of the source's time function under certain conditions. For the purpose of numerical simulation, the model is realized in FEM, The finite element results are in good agreement with the experimental data.

A Dynamic Comprehensive Method for Landslide Control

A slope failure is developed due to progressive external loads and deteriorations of slope geomaterials, thus forming a progressive and dynamic development and occurrence of landslides. Site geological properties and other active factors such as hydrodynamic load and human activities are complex and usually unknown, thus this dynamic development and occurrence of landslides can only be understood through the progressive accumulation of knowledge on the landslides. For such a progressive process, this paper proposes a dynamic comprehensive control method for landslide control. This control method takes full advantage of updated monitoring data and site investigations of landslides, and emphasizes the implementation of possible measures for landslide control at reasonable stages and in different groups. These measures are to prevent the occurrence of a landslide disaster. As a case study, a landslide project at the Panluo open-pit iron mine is analyzed to illustrate this dynamic comprehensive control method.

Mechanism on Progressive Failure of a Faulted Rock Slope Due to Slip-Weakening

Slip-weakening is one of the characteristics of geological materials under certain loadings. Non-uniform rock structure may exist in the vicinity of the slip surface for a rock slope. Some portion of the slip surface may be penetrated but the other not. For the latter case, the crack or the fault surface will undergo shear deformation before it becomes a successive surface under a certain loading. As the slipped portion advances,slip-weakening occurs over a distance behind the crack tip. In the weakening zone, the shear strength will decrease from its peak value to residual friction level. The stress will redistribute along the surface of crack and in the weakening zone. Thus the changed local stress concentration leads the crack to extend and the ratio of penetration of the slip surface to increase. From the view of large-scale for the whole slip surface, the shear strength will decrease due to the damage of interior rock structure, and the faulted rock behaves as a softening material. Such a kind of mechanism performs in a large number of practical landslides in the zones experienced strong earthquakes. It should be noted that the mechanism mentioned above is different from that of the breakage of structural clay,in which the geological material is regarded as a medium containing structural lumps and structural bands. In this paper, the softening behavior of a faulted rock should be regarded as a comprehensive result of the whole complicated process including slip-weakening, redistribution of stress, extension of crack tip, and the penetration of the slip surface. This process is accompanied by progressive failure and abrupt structural damage. The size of slip-weakening zone is related to the undergoing strain. Once the relative slide is initiated (local or integrated), the effect of slip-weakening will behave in a certain length behind the crack tip until the formation of the whole slip surface.

Weak Zone Related Seismic Cycles in Progressive Failure Leading to Collapse in Brittle Crust

Until quite recently our understanding of the basic mechanical process responsible for earthquakes and faulting was not well known. It can be argued that this was partly a consequence of the complex nature of fracture in crust and in part because evidence of brittle phenomena in the natural laboratory of the earth is often obliterated or obscured by other geological processes. While it is well understood that the spatial and temporal complexity of earthquakes and the fault structures emerge from geometrical and material built-in heterogeneities, one important open question is how the shearing becomes localized into a band of intense fractures. Here the authors address these questions through a numerical approach of a tectonic plate by considering rockmass heterogeneity both in microscopic scale and in mesoscopic scale. Numerical simulations of the progressive failure leading to collapse under long-range slow driving forces in the far-field show earthquake-like rupture behavior. $En Echelon$ crack-arrays are reproduced in the numerical simulation. It is demonstrated that the underlying fracturing induced acoustic emissions (or seismic events) display self-organized criticality------from disorder to order. The seismic cycles and the geometric structures of the fracture faces, which are found greatly depending on the material heterogeneity (especially on the macroscopic scale), agree with that observed experimentally in real brittle materials. It is concluded that in order to predict a main shock, one must have extremely detailed knowledge on very minor features of the earth's crust far from the place where the earthquake originated. If correct, the model proposed here seemingly provides an explanation as to why earthquakes to date are not predicted so successfully. The reason is not that the authors do not understand earthquake mechanisms very well but that they still know little about our earth's crust.

Mechanism Analysis of Landslide of a Layered Slope Induced by Drawdown of Water Level

The frequent drawdown of water level of Yangtze River will greatly influence the stability of the widely existing slopes in the Three Gorges reservoir zone, especially those layered ones. Apart from the fluctuating speed of water level, the different geological materials will also play important roles in the failure of slopes. Thus, it must be first to study the mechanism of such a landslide caused by drawdown of water level.A new experimental setup is designed to study the performance of a layered slope under the drawdown of water level. The pattern of landslide of a layered slope induced by drawdown of water level has been explored by means of simulating experiments. The influence of fluctuating speed of water level on the stability of the layered slope is probed,especially the whole process of deformation and development of landslide of the slope versus time. The experimental results show that the slope is stable during the water level rising, and the sliding body occurs in the upper layer of the slope under a certain drawdown speed of water level. In the process of slope failure, some new small sliding body will develop on the main sliding body, and the result is that they speed up the disassembly of the whole slope.Based on the simulating experiment on landslide of a layered slope induced by drawdown of water level, the stress and displacement field of the slope are calculated.The seepage velocity, the pore water pressure, and the gradient of pore water head are also calculated for the whole process of drawdown of water level. The computing results are in good agreement with the experimental results. Accordingly, the mechanism of deformation and landslide of the layered slope induced by drawdown of water level is analyzed. It may provide basis for treating this kind of layered slopes in practical engineering.

Saline water intrusion from deep artesian sources in McGregor Isles area of Lee County, Florida

Upward leakage of saline water from an artesian aquifer below 1,500 feet has caused an increase in chloride concentration in the lower Hawthorn aquifer from less than 1,000 mg/1 (milligrams per liter) to values ranging from about 1,300 to 15,000 mg/1. Similarly the higher temperatures of the intruding water has caused an increase in water temperatures in the aquifer from 82"F to values ranging from 83 to 93"F. The intruding water moves upward either through the open bore hole of deep wells or test holes, or along a fault or fracture system, which has been identified in the area. From these points of entry into the lower Hawthorn aquifer, the saline water spreads laterally toward the south and southeast, but is generally confined to components of the fault system. The saline water moves upward from the lower Hawthorn aquifer into the upper Hawthorn aquifer through the open bore hole of wells, which connect the aquifers. This movement has resulted in an increase in chloride from less than 200 mg/1 in the unaffected parts of the upper Hawthorn aquifer to values commonly ranging from about 300 to more than 3,000 mg/1 in parts of the aquifer affected by upward leakage. The upper Hawthorn aquifer is the principal source of ground-water supply for public water-supply systems in western Lee County. Similar effects have been noted in the water-table aquifer, where chloride increased from less than 100 to concentrations ranging from about 500 to more than 5,000 mg/1. This was caused by the downward infiltration of water discharged at land surface from wells tapping the lower Hawthorn aquifer. The spread of saline water throughout most of the McGregor Isles area is continuing as of 1971. (40 page document)