Localization and Tracking in Energy-Constrained Networks with Dynamic Connectivity

Systems used for target localization, such as goods, individuals, or animals, commonly rely on operational means to meet the final application demands. However, what would happen if some means were powered up randomly by harvesting systems? And what if those devices not randomly powered had their duty cycles restricted? Under what conditions would such an operation be tolerable in localization services? What if the references provided by nodes in a tracking problem were distorted? Moreover, there is an underlying topic common to the previous questions regarding the transfer of conceptual models to reality in field tests: what challenges are faced upon deploying a localization network that integrates energy harvesting modules? The application scenario of the system studied is a traditional herding environment of semi domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in northern Scandinavia. In these conditions, information on approximate locations of reindeer is as important as environmental preservation. Herders also need cost-effective devices capable of operating unattended in, sometimes, extreme weather conditions. The analyses developed are worthy not only for the specific application environment presented, but also because they may serve as an approach to performance of navigation systems in absence of reasonably accurate references like the ones of the Global Positioning System (GPS). A number of energy-harvesting solutions, like thermal and radio-frequency harvesting, do not commonly provide power beyond one milliwatt. When they do, battery buffers may be needed (as it happens with solar energy) which may raise costs and make systems more dependent on environmental temperatures. In general, given our problem, a harvesting system is needed that be capable of providing energy bursts of, at least, some milliwatts. Many works on localization problems assume that devices have certain capabilities to determine unknown locations based on range-based techniques or fingerprinting which cannot be assumed in the approach considered herein. The system presented is akin to range-free techniques, but goes to the extent of considering very low node densities: most range-free techniques are, therefore, not applicable. Animal localization, in particular, uses to be supported by accurate devices such as GPS collars which deplete batteries in, maximum, a few days. Such short-life solutions are not particularly desirable in the framework considered. In tracking, the challenge may times addressed aims at attaining high precision levels from complex reliable hardware and thorough processing techniques. One of the challenges in this Thesis is the use of equipment with just part of its facilities in permanent operation, which may yield high input noise levels in the form of distorted reference points. The solution presented integrates a kinetic harvesting module in some nodes which are expected to be a majority in the network. These modules are capable of providing power bursts of some milliwatts which suffice to meet node energy demands. The usage of harvesting modules in the aforementioned conditions makes the system less dependent on environmental temperatures as no batteries are used in nodes with harvesters--it may be also an advantage in economic terms. There is a second kind of nodes. They are battery powered (without kinetic energy harvesters), and are, therefore, dependent on temperature and battery replacements. In addition, their operation is constrained by duty cycles in order to extend node lifetime and, consequently, their autonomy. There is, in turn, a third type of nodes (hotspots) which can be static or mobile. They are also battery-powered, and are used to retrieve information from the network so that it is presented to users. The system operational chain starts at the kinetic-powered nodes broadcasting their own identifier. If an identifier is received at a battery-powered node, the latter stores it for its records. Later, as the recording node meets a hotspot, its full record of detections is transferred to the hotspot. Every detection registry comprises, at least, a node identifier and the position read from its GPS module by the battery-operated node previously to detection. The characteristics of the system presented make the aforementioned operation own certain particularities which are also studied. First, identifier transmissions are random as they depend on movements at kinetic modules--reindeer movements in our application. Not every movement suffices since it must overcome a certain energy threshold. Second, identifier transmissions may not be heard unless there is a battery-powered node in the surroundings. Third, battery-powered nodes do not poll continuously their GPS module, hence localization errors rise even more. Let's recall at this point that such behavior is tight to the aforementioned power saving policies to extend node lifetime. Last, some time is elapsed between the instant an identifier random transmission is detected and the moment the user is aware of such a detection: it takes some time to find a hotspot. Tracking is posed as a problem of a single kinetically-powered target and a population of battery-operated nodes with higher densities than before in localization. Since the latter provide their approximate positions as reference locations, the study is again focused on assessing the impact of such distorted references on performance. Unlike in localization, distance-estimation capabilities based on signal parameters are assumed in this problem. Three variants of the Kalman filter family are applied in this context: the regular Kalman filter, the alpha-beta filter, and the unscented Kalman filter. The study enclosed hereafter comprises both field tests and simulations. Field tests were used mainly to assess the challenges related to power supply and operation in extreme conditions as well as to model nodes and some aspects of their operation in the application scenario. These models are the basics of the simulations developed later. The overall system performance is analyzed according to three metrics: number of detections per kinetic node, accuracy, and latency. The links between these metrics and the operational conditions are also discussed and characterized statistically. Subsequently, such statistical characterization is used to forecast performance figures given specific operational parameters. In tracking, also studied via simulations, nonlinear relationships are found between accuracy and duty cycles and cluster sizes of battery-operated nodes. The solution presented may be more complex in terms of network structure than existing solutions based on GPS collars. However, its main gain lies on taking advantage of users' error tolerance to reduce costs and become more environmentally friendly by diminishing the potential amount of batteries that can be lost. Whether it is applicable or not depends ultimately on the conditions and requirements imposed by users' needs and operational environments, which is, as it has been explained, one of the topics of this Thesis.

Minimum time control for multiphase buck converter: analysis and application

The combination of minimum time control and multiphase converter is a favorable option for dc-dc converters in applications where output voltage variation is required, such as RF amplifiers and dynamic voltage scaling in microprocessors, due to their advantage of fast dynamic response. In this paper, an improved minimum time control approach for multiphase buck converter that is based on charge balance technique, aiming at fast output voltage transition is presented. Compared with the traditional method, the proposed control takes into account the phase delay and current ripple in each phase. Therefore, by investigating the behavior of multiphase converter during voltage transition, it resolves the problem of current unbalance after the transient, which can lead to long settling time of the output voltage. The restriction of this control is that the output voltage that the converter can provide is related to the number of the phases, because only the duty cycles at which the multiphase converter has total ripple cancellation are used in this approach. The model of the proposed control is introduced, and the design constraints of the buck converters filter for this control are discussed. In order to prove the concept, a four-phase buck converter is implemented and the experimental results that validate the proposed control method are presented. The application of this control to RF envelope tracking is also presented in this paper.

Design energy input spectra for high seismicity regions based on Turkish registers

This work proposes design energy spectra in terms of an equivalent velocity, intended for regions with design peak acceleration 0.3 g or higher. These spectra were derived through linear and nonlinear dynamic analyses on a number of selected Turkish strong ground motion records. In the long and mid period ranges the analyses are linear, given the relative insensitivity of the spectra to structural parameters other than the fundamental period; conversely, in the short period range, the spectra are more sensitive to the structural parameters and, hence, nonlinear analyses are required. The selected records are classified in eight groups with respect to soil type (stiff or soft soil), the severity of the earthquake in terms of surface magnitude Ms(Ms≤ 5.5 and Ms> 5.5) and the relevance of the near-source effects (impulsive or vibratory). For each of these groups, median and characteristic spectra are proposed; such levels would respectively correspond to 50 and 95 % percentiles. These spectra have an initial linear growing branch in the short period range, a horizontal branch in the mid period range and a descending branch in the long period range. Empirical criteria for estimating the hysteretic energy from the input energy are suggested. The proposed design spectra are compared with those obtained from other studies.

Noise-agnostic adaptive image filtering without training references on an evolvable hardware platform

One of the main concerns of evolvable and adaptive systems is the need of a training mechanism, which is normally done by using a training reference and a test input. The fitness function to be optimized during the evolution (training) phase is obtained by comparing the output of the candidate systems against the reference. The adaptivity that this type of systems may provide by re-evolving during operation is especially important for applications with runtime variable conditions. However, fully automated self-adaptivity poses additional problems. For instance, in some cases, it is not possible to have such reference, because the changes in the environment conditions are unknown, so it becomes difficult to autonomously identify which problem requires to be solved, and hence, what conditions should be representative for an adequate re-evolution. In this paper, a solution to solve this dependency is presented and analyzed. The system consists of an image filter application mapped on an evolvable hardware platform, able to evolve using two consecutive frames from a camera as both test and reference images. The system is entirely mapped in an FPGA, and native dynamic and partial reconfiguration is used for evolution. It is also shown that using such images, both of them being noisy, as input and reference images in the evolution phase of the system is equivalent or even better than evolving the filter with offline images. The combination of both techniques results in the completely autonomous, noise type/level agnostic filtering system without reference image requirement described along the paper.

A review of Tai Chi Chuan and parameters related to balance

Introduction: Previous systematic reviews of the literature on the effects of Tai Chi Chuan(TCC)on balance have focussed either on determining the quality of the research design or have provided just a general description of the studies.To the best of our knowledge none have approached this topic by conducting an analysis from the point of view of the factors which affect balance.It is important to present this perspective as it will help to guide future research in this field. Methodology: Seven electronic data bases were searched for publications dated between 1996 and 2012.The inclusion criteria were;randomized controlled trials(RCT)written in English. Results: From a total of 397 articles identified, 27 randomized controlled trials were eligible for the analysis. Conclusions: Studies reviewed appear to confirm that TCC improves static and dynamic balance and in the functional factors which affect balance in persons of over 55 years of age.Only one study was identified on people affected with problems with the vestibular system. No studies on the influence of TCC on improvement in balance in individuals suffering from deteriorated brain function were identified.

Improvement of the Dynamic Performance of a Multiphase Current Controlled Buck Converter using an Auxiliary Synchronous Buck Converter as an Additional Energy Path

This work is related to the output impedance improvement of a Multiphase Buck converter with Peak Current Mode Control (PCMC) by means of introducing an additional power path that virtually increases the output capacitance during transients. Various solutions that can be employed to improve the dynamic behavior of the converter system exist, but nearly all solutions are developed for a Single Phase Buck converter with Voltage Mode Control (VMC), while in the VRM applications, due to the high currents, the system is usually implemented as a Multiphase Buck Converter with Current Mode Control. The additional energy path, as presented here, is introduced with the Output Impedance Correction Circuit (OICC) based on the Controlled Current Source (CCS). The OICC is used to inject or extract a current n-1 times larger than the output capacitor current, thus virtually increasing n times the value of the output capacitance during the transients. Furthermore, this work extends the OICC concept to a Multiphase Buck Converter system while comparing proposed solution with the system that has n times bigger output capacitor. In addition, the OICC is implemented as a Synchronous Buck Converter with PCMC, thus reducing its influence on the system efficiency.

Analysis and validation of a multiple output series resonant converter

In this paper a novel bidirectional multiple port dc/dc transformer topology is presented. The novel concept for dc/dc transformer is based on the Series Resonant Converter (SRC) topology operated at its resonant frequency point. This allows for higher switching frequency to be adopted and enables high efficiency/high power density operation. The feasibility of the proposed concept is verified on a 300W, 700 kHz three port prototype with 390V input voltage and 48V and 12V output voltages. A peak overall efficiency of 93% is measured at full load. A very good load and cross regulation characteristic of the converter is observed in the whole load range, from full load to open circuit. The sensitivity analysis of the resonant capacitance is also performed showing very slight deterioration in the converter performances when a resonant capacitor is changed ±30% of its nominal value.

Web based interactive educational software introducing semiconductor laser dynamics: Sound Of Lasers (SOL)

In this work, educational software for intuitive understanding of the basic dynamic processes of semiconductor lasers is presented. The proposed tool is addressed to the students of optical communication courses, encouraging self consolidation of the subjects learned in lectures. The semiconductor laser model is based on the well known rate equations for the carrier density, photon density and optical phase. The direct modulation of the laser is considered with input parameters which can be selected by the user. Different options for the waveform, amplitude and frequency of thpoint. Simulation results are plotted for carrier density and output power versus time. Instantaneous frequency variations of the laser output are numerically shifted to the audible frequency range and sent to the computer loudspeakers. This results in an intuitive description of the “chirp” phenomenon due to amplitude-phase coupling, typical of directly modulated semiconductor lasers. In this way, the student can actually listen to the time resolved spectral content of the laser output. By changing the laser parameters and/or the modulation parameters,consequent variation of the laser output can be appreciated in intuitive manner. The proposed educational tool has been previously implemented by the same authors with locally executable software. In the present manuscript, we extend our previous work to a web based platform, offering improved distribution and allowing its use to the wide audience of the web.

Multiphase Current Controlled Buck Converter with energy recycling Output Impedance Correction Circuit (OICC)

This work is related to the output impedance improvement of a Multiphase Buck converter with Peak Current Mode Control (PCMC) by means of introducing an additional power path that virtually increases the output capacitance during transients. Various solutions that can be employed to improve the dynamic behavior of the converter system exist, but nearly all solutions are developed for a Single Phase Buck converter with Voltage Mode Control (VMC), while in the VRM applications, due to the high currents, the system is usually implemented as a Multiphase Buck Converter with Current Mode Control. The Output Impedance Correction Circuit (OICC) is used to inject or extract a current n-1 times larger than the output capacitor current, thus virtually increasing n times the value of the output capacitance during the transients. Furthermore, this work extends the OICC concept to a Multiphase Buck Converter system while comparing proposed solution with the system that has n times bigger output capacitor. In addition, the OICC is implemented as a Synchronous Buck Converter with PCMC, thus reducing its influence on the system efficiency

Aplicación de distintas metodologías a la monitorización de la humedad del suelo y al cálculo del balance hídrico diario

Dada la importancia de conocer la humedad del suelo de forma precisa y en tiempo real, se ha realizado este trabajo de investigación cuyo objetivo principal ha sido seleccionar un Balance Hídrico del Suelo (BHS) diario y validar sus estimaciones de humedad del suelo frente a medidas obtenidas “in situ”, aplicándolo a tres emplazamientos seleccionados en la zona centro con características edáficas y climáticas diferentes, y de este modo estimar con cierta precisión la humedad del suelo como Agua Disponible (AD) para las plantas y a su vez permitir la realización de estudios climáticos. Los observatorios meteorológicos seleccionados fueron: Guadalajara/El Serranillo en la zona aluvial del río Henares; Colmenar Viejo/Base Famet en la rampa sur del Guadarrama sobre rocas metamórficas; y Radiosondeo/Madrid(Barajas) en arenas arcósicas de grano grueso. Se realizó una caracterización morfológica y un estudio de las propiedades físicas, químicas e hidrofísicas de los suelos en cada emplazamiento. El suelo de Guadalajara, Xerorthent Típico presenta una secuencia genética de horizontes (Ap-AC-C1-C2) siendo su clase textural entre franco-arenosa a franca, con menos del 2% de elementos gruesos, presencia de caliza a lo largo de todo el perfil, destacando la homogeneidad en vertical y horizontal de sus propiedades. El suelo de Colmenar, Xerorthent Dystrico, presenta una secuencia genética de horizontes (A-C-C/R) apareciendo el horizonte C/R entre 20-30 cm; y la roca aproximadamente a unos 30 cm; destacando en este perfil su acidez y el alto contenido de elementos gruesos. El suelo de Radiosondeo, Haploxeralf Típico, presenta la secuencia normal de horizontes de los alfisoles (A-Bt1-Bt2-C/Bt); destacando su heterogeneidad principalmente en el plano horizontal, con presencia del Bt a diferentes profundidades en un corto espacio longitudinal. En una primera fase de experimentación (2007-2008) se seleccionaron BHS diarios que sólo utilizaban como datos de entrada la información de variables meteorológicas y el valor del Agua Disponible Total (ADT) para cada tipo de suelo y profundidad. Se probaron BHS diarios con agotamiento exponencial y directo de la reserva, utilizando la evapotranspiración de referencia de Penman-Monteith recomendada por FAO. Al mismo tiempo que se disponía de los datos estimados de humedad de suelo mediante diferentes BHS diarios en los tres emplazamientos, también se realizó una monitorización de la humedad del suelo “in situ” mediante el método gravimétrico, con adaptación de dicha metodología a la problemática de cada suelo, para determinar en cada fecha tanto la humedad del suelo como su contenido de AD para una profundidad de 0 a 30 cm. Se tomaron en cada fecha de muestreo 5 muestras para la profundidad 0- 10 cm, otras cinco para 10-20 cm y otras cinco para 20-30 cm, realizándose el correspondiente tratamiento estadístico de los datos. El ADT se calculó a partir de los datos de capacidad de campo y punto de marchitez obtenidos en laboratorio con membrana de Richards. Los resultados de esta primera fase permitieron conocer que el BHS exponencial diario era el que mejor estimaba el AD en Guadalajara considerando la capacidad de campo a una presión de 33 kPa, mientras que en Colmenar se debían considerar para un mejor ajuste, 10 kPa en lugar de 33 kPa. En el observatorio de Radiosondeo debido a que en cada fecha de muestreo la profundidad en la que aparecía el horizonte Bt era diferente, no se pudo demostrar si el BHS exponencial diario tenía un buen comportamiento. En una segunda fase de experimentación (2009-2012) y con el objeto de aminorar los problemas encontrados en Radiosondeo para la medida de humedad del suelo por el método gravimétrico, se procedió a la instalación y utilización de diferentes sensores de medida de humedad de suelo en el mismo observatorio: TDR (time domain reflectometry - TRIME T3 de IMKO); FDR capacitivo (frecuency domain reflectometry - ECH2O EC-20 de DECAGON) y otros. Esta segunda fase de experimentación tuvo una duración de 4 años y se compararon las medidas de humedad de suelo obtenidas a partir de los sensores con las estimadas del BHS exponencial hasta una profundidad de 0 a 85 cm. En laboratorio se realizaron calibraciones específicas de los sensores TDR y FDR para cada uno de los horizontes más diferenciados del Haploxeralf Típico, utilizando diferentes tipos de regresión. Los valores de humedad de suelo con el equipo TDR, corregidos mediante la calibración específica de laboratorio, fueron los que más se ajustaron a las medidas realizadas por método gravimétrico “in situ”, por lo que se utilizó el TDR para las comparaciones con los valores obtenidos del BHS exponencial diario durante los cuatro años de esta segunda fase experimental. Se realizaron diferentes estimaciones del ADT, partiendo de datos de laboratorio y/o de datos procedentes de humedad de los sensores en campo. Los resultados mostraron de nuevo la conveniencia de utilizar el BHS exponencial diario, pero en este caso, con la estimación del ADT realizada a partir de las gráficas de los sensores. Mediante la utilización de los datos de humedad del BHS exponencial diario se han realizado comparaciones con el mismo tipo de balance pero utilizando un periodo semanal o mensual en lugar de diario, para conocer las diferencias. Los valores obtenidos con periodicidad mensual han dado valores de AD inferiores a los balances calculados semanalmente o diariamente. Por último se ha comprobado que los resultados de un BHS exponencial diario pueden complementar la información que se obtiene del Índice de Precipitación Estandarizado (SPI) y pueden mejorar el estudio de la sequía agrícola. ABSTRACT Due to the importance of a better knowledge of soil water at real time and in a more precisely way, this research work has being carried out with the main objective of selecting a daily Soil Water Balance (SWB) to estimate soil water content, and validate it in comparison to “in situ” measurements. Three locations, differing in soil and climate characteristics, were selected in central Spain in order to estimate with certain acuity soil water as plant-Available Water (AW) and to serve as a tool for the climatic studies. The selected places near meteorology stations were: Guadalajara/El Serranillo an alluvium of the Henares watershed; Colmenar Viejo/Base Famet, in the south raised area of the Guadarrama river basin, over metamorphic rocks; and Radiosondeo/Madrid (Barajas) in coarse arkosic sandstone. Morphology characterization, physical, chemical and hydrologic soil properties were studied in each area. In Guadalajara the soil is a Typic Xerorthent with a (Ap-AC-C1- C2) genetic horizon sequence, loam-sandy to loam textural class, less than 2% of rock fragments, presence of equivalent CaCO3 through the whole profile, outstanding the vertical and horizontal homogeneity of the properties. In Colmenar the soil is represented by a Dystric Xerorthent with a (A-C-C/R) genetic horizon sequence, the C/R is 20-30 cm deep where rock outcrops are approximately at 30 cm; a characteristic feature of this profile is its high acidity and high rock fragments content. In Radiosondeo the soil is represented by a Typic Haploxeralf, with the usual alfisol genetic horizon sequence (A-Bt1-Bt2-C/Bt); outstanding its horizontal heterogeneity, “the variability of the Bt (clay enriched horizon) depth in short distances”. In a first experimental stage (2007-2008), the daily SWB chosen was that which only uses as input data the information from the meteorology variables and plant-Total Available Water (TAW) for each soil type and depth. Different daily SWB (with exponential or direct plant-Available Water depletion) were applied, using the Penman- Monteith reference evapotranspiration (ETo) recommended by FAO. At the same time as soil water content was estimated from the different daily SWB at the three locations, also soil water content was being monitored by “in situ” gravimetric methodology, adapting it to each soil characteristic, to determine every time soil water content and AW to a depth of 0 to 30 cm. In each sampling date, 5 samples for each depth were taken: 0-10 cm; 10-20 cm and 20-30 cm and the data were submitted to the corresponding statistical analysis. The TAW was calculated based on field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP) data obtained from laboratory by the Richards pressure plate. Results from this first experimental stage show that the daily exponential SWB was the one which better estimated the AW in Guadalajara considering field capacity at -33 kPa, though in Colmenar, field capacity at -10 kPa must be considered instead of -33 kPa for a better estimation. In Radiosondeo due to the fact that the Bt horizon depth varied in different sampling dates, it could not be established if the daily exponential SWB had a good performance. In a second experimental stage (20019-2012) and with the objective of minimizing the problems encountered in Radiosondeo for measuring “in situ” soil water content by the gravimetric method, the installation of different sensors for measuring soil water content were established and used in the same field location: TDR (time domain reflectometry - TRIME T3 from IMKO), capacitance FDR (frecuency domain reflectometry - ECH2O EC-20 from DECAGON) and others. This second experimental stage lasted 4 years in order to compare the soil water measures from the sensors with the estimations by the exponential SWB form 0 to 85 cm soil depths. At laboratory, specific calibrations for TDR and FDR sensors of the Typic Haploxeralf more differentiated horizons were done using different types of regressions. The results showed that soil water data obtained by the TDR equipment, corrected by the specific laboratory calibration, best fitted to “in situ” gravimetric soil water measures. In this way TDR was used for comparing to the daily exponential SWB during the four years of this second experimentation stage. Various estimations for obtaining TAW were tested; based on laboratory data – and/or on the data obtained of the soil water content field sensors. Results confirmed again, the convenience of using the daily exponential SWB, though in this case, with the TAW obtained from the field sensors graphics. Soil water estimated by exponential SWB on daily basis was compared to weekly and monthly periods, in order to know their reliability. The results obtained for a monthly period gave less AW than the ones obtained in a weekly or daily period. Finally it has been proved that the results obtained from the exponential SWB in a daily bases can be used as a useful tool in order to give complementary information to the SPI (Precipitation Standardized Index) and to help in agricultural drought studies.

Dynamic analysis of payloads and structures with intermediate modal density

La necesidad de desarrollar técnicas para predecir la respuesta vibroacústica de estructuras espaciales lia ido ganando importancia en los últimos años. Las técnicas numéricas existentes en la actualidad son capaces de predecir de forma fiable el comportamiento vibroacústico de sistemas con altas o bajas densidades modales. Sin embargo, ambos rangos no siempre solapan lo que hace que sea necesario el desarrollo de métodos específicos para este rango, conocido como densidad modal media. Es en este rango, conocido también como media frecuencia, donde se centra la presente Tesis doctoral, debido a la carencia de métodos específicos para el cálculo de la respuesta vibroacústica. Para las estructuras estudiadas en este trabajo, los mencionados rangos de baja y alta densidad modal se corresponden, en general, con los rangos de baja y alta frecuencia, respectivamente. Los métodos numéricos que permiten obtener la respuesta vibroacústica para estos rangos de frecuencia están bien especificados. Para el rango de baja frecuencia se emplean técnicas deterministas, como el método de los Elementos Finitos, mientras que, para el rango de alta frecuencia las técnicas estadísticas son más utilizadas, como el Análisis Estadístico de la Energía. En el rango de medias frecuencias ninguno de estos métodos numéricos puede ser usado con suficiente precisión y, como consecuencia -a falta de propuestas más específicas- se han desarrollado métodos híbridos que combinan el uso de métodos de baja y alta frecuencia, intentando que cada uno supla las deficiencias del otro en este rango medio. Este trabajo propone dos soluciones diferentes para resolver el problema de la media frecuencia. El primero de ellos, denominado SHFL (del inglés Subsystem based High Frequency Limit procedure), propone un procedimiento multihíbrido en el cuál cada subestructura del sistema completo se modela empleando una técnica numérica diferente, dependiendo del rango de frecuencias de estudio. Con este propósito se introduce el concepto de límite de alta frecuencia de una subestructura, que marca el límite a partir del cual dicha subestructura tiene una densidad modal lo suficientemente alta como para ser modelada utilizando Análisis Estadístico de la Energía. Si la frecuencia de análisis es menor que el límite de alta frecuencia de la subestructura, ésta se modela utilizando Elementos Finitos. Mediante este método, el rango de media frecuencia se puede definir de una forma precisa, estando comprendido entre el menor y el mayor de los límites de alta frecuencia de las subestructuras que componen el sistema completo. Los resultados obtenidos mediante la aplicación de este método evidencian una mejora en la continuidad de la respuesta vibroacústica, mostrando una transición suave entre los rangos de baja y alta frecuencia. El segundo método propuesto se denomina HS-CMS (del inglés Hybrid Substructuring method based on Component Mode Synthesis). Este método se basa en la clasificación de la base modal de las subestructuras en conjuntos de modos globales (que afectan a todo o a varias partes del sistema) o locales (que afectan a una única subestructura), utilizando un método de Síntesis Modal de Componentes. De este modo es posible situar espacialmente los modos del sistema completo y estudiar el comportamiento del mismo desde el punto de vista de las subestructuras. De nuevo se emplea el concepto de límite de alta frecuencia de una subestructura para realizar la clasificación global/local de los modos en la misma. Mediante dicha clasificación se derivan las ecuaciones globales del movimiento, gobernadas por los modos globales, y en las que la influencia del conjunto de modos locales se introduce mediante modificaciones en las mismas (en su matriz dinámica de rigidez y en el vector de fuerzas). Las ecuaciones locales se resuelven empleando Análisis Estadístico de Energías. Sin embargo, este último será un modelo híbrido, en el cual se introduce la potencia adicional aportada por la presencia de los modos globales. El método ha sido probado para el cálculo de la respuesta de estructuras sometidas tanto a cargas estructurales como acústicas. Ambos métodos han sido probados inicialmente en estructuras sencillas para establecer las bases e hipótesis de aplicación. Posteriormente, se han aplicado a estructuras espaciales, como satélites y reflectores de antenas, mostrando buenos resultados, como se concluye de la comparación de las simulaciones y los datos experimentales medidos en ensayos, tanto estructurales como acústicos. Este trabajo abre un amplio campo de investigación a partir del cual es posible obtener metodologías precisas y eficientes para reproducir el comportamiento vibroacústico de sistemas en el rango de la media frecuencia. ABSTRACT Over the last years an increasing need of novel prediction techniques for vibroacoustic analysis of space structures has arisen. Current numerical techniques arc able to predict with enough accuracy the vibro-acoustic behaviour of systems with low and high modal densities. However, space structures are, in general, very complex and they present a range of frequencies in which a mixed behaviour exist. In such cases, the full system is composed of some sub-structures which has low modal density, while others present high modal density. This frequency range is known as the mid-frequency range and to develop methods for accurately describe the vibro-acoustic response in this frequency range is the scope of this dissertation. For the structures under study, the aforementioned low and high modal densities correspond with the low and high frequency ranges, respectively. For the low frequency range, deterministic techniques as the Finite Element Method (FEM) are used while, for the high frequency range statistical techniques, as the Statistical Energy Analysis (SEA), arc considered as more appropriate. In the mid-frequency range, where a mixed vibro-acoustic behaviour is expected, any of these numerical method can not be used with enough confidence level. As a consequence, it is usual to obtain an undetermined gap between low and high frequencies in the vibro-acoustic response function. This dissertation proposes two different solutions to the mid-frequency range problem. The first one, named as The Subsystem based High Frequency Limit (SHFL) procedure, proposes a multi-hybrid procedure in which each sub-structure of the full system is modelled with the appropriate modelling technique, depending on the frequency of study. With this purpose, the concept of high frequency limit of a sub-structure is introduced, marking out the limit above which a substructure has enough modal density to be modelled by SEA. For a certain analysis frequency, if it is lower than the high frequency limit of the sub-structure, the sub-structure is modelled through FEM and, if the frequency of analysis is higher than the high frequency limit, the sub-structure is modelled by SEA. The procedure leads to a number of hybrid models required to cover the medium frequency range, which is defined as the frequency range between the lowest substructure high frequency limit and the highest one. Using this procedure, the mid-frequency range can be define specifically so that, as a consequence, an improvement in the continuity of the vibro-acoustic response function is achieved, closing the undetermined gap between the low and high frequency ranges. The second proposed mid-frequency solution is the Hybrid Sub-structuring method based on Component Mode Synthesis (HS-CMS). The method adopts a partition scheme based on classifying the system modal basis into global and local sets of modes. This classification is performed by using a Component Mode Synthesis, in particular a Craig-Bampton transformation, in order to express the system modal base into the modal bases associated with each sub-structure. Then, each sub-structure modal base is classified into global and local set, fist ones associated with the long wavelength motion and second ones with the short wavelength motion. The high frequency limit of each sub-structure is used as frequency frontier between both sets of modes. From this classification, the equations of motion associated with global modes are derived, which include the interaction of local modes by means of corrections in the dynamic stiffness matrix and the force vector of the global problem. The local equations of motion are solved through SEA, where again interactions with global modes arc included through the inclusion of an additional input power into the SEA model. The method has been tested for the calculation of the response function of structures subjected to structural and acoustic loads. Both methods have been firstly tested in simple structures to establish their basis and main characteristics. Methods are also verified in space structures, as satellites and antenna reflectors, providing good results as it is concluded from the comparison with experimental results obtained in both, acoustic and structural load tests. This dissertation opens a wide field of research through which further studies could be performed to obtain efficient and accurate methodologies to appropriately reproduce the vibro-acoustic behaviour of complex systems in the mid-frequency range.

Discrete element analysis for the assessment of the accuracy of load cell-based dynamic weighing systems in grape harvesters under different ground conditions

Dynamic weighing systems based on load cells are commonly used to estimate crop yields in the field. There is lack of data, however, regarding the accuracy of such weighing systems mounted on harvesting machinery, especially on that used to collect high value crops such as fruits and vegetables. Certainly, dynamic weighing systems mounted on the bins of grape harvesters are affected by the displacement of the load inside the bin when moving over terrain of changing topography. In this work, the load that would be registered in a grape harvester bin by a dynamic weighing system based on the use of a load cell was inferred by using the discrete element method (DEM). DEM is a numerical technique capable of accurately describing the behaviour of granular materials under dynamic situations and it has been proven to provide successful predictions in many different scenarios. In this work, different DEM models of a grape harvester bin were developed contemplating different influencing factors. Results obtained from these models were used to infer the output given by the load cell of a real bin. The mass detected by the load cell when the bin was inclined depended strongly on the distribution of the load within the bin, but was underestimated in all scenarios. The distribution of the load was found to be dependent on the inclination of the bin caused by the topography of the terrain, but also by the history of inclination (inclination rate, presence of static periods, etc.) since the effect of the inertia of the particles (i.e., representing the grapes) was not negligible. Some recommendations are given to try to improve the accuracy of crop load measurement in the field.

Assessment of expected damage on buildings subjected to Lorca earthquake through an energy-based seismic index method and nonlinear dynamic response analyses

The city of Lorca (Spain) was hit on May 11th, 2011, by two consecutive earth-quakes of magnitudes 4.6 and 5.2 Mw, causing casualties and important damage in buildings. Many of the damaged structures were reinforced concrete frames with wide beams. This study quantifies the expected level of damage on this structural type in the case of the Lorca earth-quake by means of a seismic index Iv that compares the energy input by the earthquake with the energy absorption/dissipation capacity of the structure. The prototype frames investigated represent structures designed in two time periods (1994–2002 and 2003–2008), in which the applicable codes were different. The influence of the masonry infill walls and the proneness of the frames to concentrate damage in a given story were further investigated through nonlinear dynamic response analyses. It is found that (1) the seismic index method predicts levels of damage that range from moderate/severe to complete collapse; this prediction is consistent with the observed damage; (2) the presence of masonry infill walls makes the structure very prone to damage concentration and reduces the overall seismic capacity of the building; and (3) a proper hierarchy of strength between beams and columns that guarantees the formation of a strong column-weak beam mechanism (as prescribed by seismic codes), as well as the adoption of counter-measures to avoid the negative interaction between non-structural infill walls and the main frame, would have reduced the level of damage from Iv=1 (collapse) to about Iv=0.5 (moderate/severe damage)

Structural health monitoringby using transmissibility

El control del estado en el que se encuentran las estructuras ha experimentado un gran auge desde hace varias décadas, debido a que los costes de rehabilitación de estructuras tales como los oleoductos, los puentes, los edificios y otras más son muy elevados. En las últimas dos décadas, se han desarrollado una gran cantidad de métodos que permiten identificar el estado real de una estructura, basándose en modelos físicos y datos de ensayos. El ensayo modal es el más común; mediante el análisis modal experimental de una estructura se pueden determinar parámetros como la frecuencia, los modos de vibración y la amortiguación y también la función de respuesta en frecuencia de la estructura. Mediante estos parámetros se pueden implementar diferentes indicadores de daño. Sin embargo, para estructuras complejas y grandes, la implementación de metodologías basadas en la función de respuesta en frecuencia requeriría realizar hipótesis sobre la fuerza utilizada para excitar la estructura. Dado que el análisis modal operacional utiliza solamente las señales de respuesta del sistema para extraer los parámetros dinámicos estructurales y, por tanto, para evaluar el estado de una estructura, el uso de la transmisibilidad sería posible. En este sentido, dentro del análisis modal operacional, la transmisibilidad ha concentrado mucha atención en el mundo científico en la última década. Aunque se han publicado muchos trabajos sobre el tema, en esta Tesis se proponen diferentes técnicas para evaluar el estado de una estructura basándose exclusivamente en la transmisibilidad. En primer lugar, se propone un indicador de daño basado en un nuevo parámetro, la coherencia de transmisibilidad; El indicador se ha valido mediante resultados numéricos y experimentales obtenidos sobre un pórtico de tres pisos. En segundo lugar, la distancia de Mahalanobis se aplica sobre la transmisibilidad como procedimiento para detectar variaciones estructurales provocadas por el daño. Este método se ha validado con éxito sobre una viga libre-libre ensayada experimentalmente. En tercer lugar, se ha implementado una red neuronal basada en medidas de transmisibilidad como metodología de predicción de daño sobre una viga simulada numéricamente. ABSTRACT Structural health monitoring has experienced a huge development from several decades ago since the cost of rehabilitation of structures such as oil pipes, bridges and tall buildings is very high. In the last two decades, a lot of methods able to identify the real stage of a structure have been developed basing on both models and experimental data. Modal testing is the most common; by carrying out the experimental modal analysis of a structure, some parameters, such as frequency, mode shapes and damping, as well as the frequency response function of the structure can be obtained. From these parameters, different damage indicators have been proposed. However, for complex and large structures, any frequency domain approach that relies on frequency response function estimation would be of difficult application since an assumption of the input excitations to the system should be carried out. Operational modal analysis uses only output signals to extract the structural dynamic parameters and, therefore, to identify the structural stage. In this sense, within operational modal analysis, transmissibility has attracted a lot of attention in the scientific field in the last decade. In this work new damage detection approaches based on transmissibility are developed. Firstly, a new theory of transmissibility coherence is developed and it is tested with a three-floor-structure both in simulation and in experimental data analysis; secondly, Mahalanobis distance is taken into use with the transmissibility, and a free-free beam is used to test the approach performance; thirdly, neural networks are used in transmissibility for structural health monitoring; a simulated beam is used to validate the proposed method.

Structural health monitoringby using transmissibility

El control del estado en el que se encuentran las estructuras ha experimentado un gran auge desde hace varias décadas, debido a que los costes de rehabilitación de estructuras tales como los oleoductos, los puentes, los edificios y otras más son muy elevados. En las últimas dos décadas, se han desarrollado una gran cantidad de métodos que permiten identificar el estado real de una estructura, basándose en modelos físicos y datos de ensayos. El ensayo modal es el más común; mediante el análisis modal experimental de una estructura se pueden determinar parámetros como la frecuencia, los modos de vibración y la amortiguación y también la función de respuesta en frecuencia de la estructura. Mediante estos parámetros se pueden implementar diferentes indicadores de daño. Sin embargo, para estructuras complejas y grandes, la implementación de metodologías basadas en la función de respuesta en frecuencia requeriría realizar hipótesis sobre la fuerza utilizada para excitar la estructura. Dado que el análisis modal operacional utiliza solamente las señales de respuesta del sistema para extraer los parámetros dinámicos estructurales y, por tanto, para evaluar el estado de una estructura, el uso de la transmisibilidad sería posible. En este sentido, dentro del análisis modal operacional, la transmisibilidad ha concentrado mucha atención en el mundo científico en la última década. Aunque se han publicado muchos trabajos sobre el tema, en esta Tesis se proponen diferentes técnicas para evaluar el estado de una estructura basándose exclusivamente en la transmisibilidad. En primer lugar, se propone un indicador de daño basado en un nuevo parámetro, la coherencia de transmisibilidad; El indicador se ha valido mediante resultados numéricos y experimentales obtenidos sobre un pórtico de tres pisos. En segundo lugar, la distancia de Mahalanobis se aplica sobre la transmisibilidad como procedimiento para detectar variaciones estructurales provocadas por el daño. Este método se ha validado con éxito sobre una viga libre-libre ensayada experimentalmente. En tercer lugar, se ha implementado una red neuronal basada en medidas de transmisibilidad como metodología de predicción de daño sobre una viga simulada numéricamente. ABSTRACT Structural health monitoring has experienced a huge development from several decades ago since the cost of rehabilitation of structures such as oil pipes, bridges and tall buildings is very high. In the last two decades, a lot of methods able to identify the real stage of a structure have been developed basing on both models and experimental data. Modal testing is the most common; by carrying out the experimental modal analysis of a structure, some parameters, such as frequency, mode shapes and damping, as well as the frequency response function of the structure can be obtained. From these parameters, different damage indicators have been proposed. However, for complex and large structures, any frequency domain approach that relies on frequency response function estimation would be of difficult application since an assumption of the input excitations to the system should be carried out. Operational modal analysis uses only output signals to extract the structural dynamic parameters and, therefore, to identify the structural stage. In this sense, within operational modal analysis, transmissibility has attracted a lot of attention in the scientific field in the last decade. In this work new damage detection approaches based on transmissibility are developed. Firstly, a new theory of transmissibility coherence is developed and it is tested with a three-floor-structure both in simulation and in experimental data analysis; secondly, Mahalanobis distance is taken into use with the transmissibility, and a free-free beam is used to test the approach performance; thirdly, neural networks are used in transmissibility for structural health monitoring; a simulated beam is used to validate the proposed method.