Extreme climatic events: impacts of drought and high temperature on physiological processes in agronomically important plants

Climate models predict more frequent and more severe extreme events (e.g., heat waves, extended drought periods, flooding) in many regions for the next decades. The impact of adverse environmental conditions on crop plants is ecologically and economically relevant. This review is focused on drought and heat effects on physiological status and productivity of agronomically important plants. Stomatal opening represents an important regulatory mechanism during drought and heat stress since it influences simultaneously water loss via transpiration and CO2 diffusion into the leaf apoplast which further is utilized in photosynthesis. Along with the reversible short-term control of stomatal opening, stomata and leaf epidermis may produce waxy deposits and irreversibly down-regulate the stomatal conductance and non-stomatal transpiration. As a consequence photosynthesis will be negatively affected. Rubisco activase—a key enzyme in keeping the Calvin cycle functional—is heat-sensitive and may become a limiting factor at elevated temperature. The accumulated reactive oxygen species (ROS) during stress represent an additional challenge under unfavorable conditions. Drought and heat cause accumulation of free amino acids which are partially converted into compatible solutes such as proline. This is accompanied by lower rates of both nitrate reduction and de novo amino acid biosynthesis. Protective proteins (e.g., dehydrins, chaperones, antioxidant enzymes or the key enzyme for proline biosynthesis) play an important role in leaves and may be present at higher levels under water deprivation or high temperatures. On the whole plant level, effects on long-distance translocation of solutes via xylem and phloem and on leaf senescence (e.g., anticipated, accelerated or delayed senescence) are important. The factors mentioned above are relevant for the overall performance of crops under drought and heat and must be considered for genotype selection and breeding programs.

Climatic change and contemporaneous land-use phases north and south of the Alps 2300 BC to 800 AD

Fluctuations in the Δ14C curve and subsequent gaps of archaeological findings at 800–650 and 400–100 BC in western and central Europe may indicate major climate-driven land-abandonment phases. To address this hypothesis radiocarbon-dated sediments from four lakes in Switzerland were studied palynologically. Pollen analysis indicates contemporaneous phases of forest clearances and of intensified land-use at 1450–1250 BC, 650–450 BC, 50 BC–100 AD and around 700 AD. These land-use expansions coincided with periods of warm climate as recorded by the Alpine dendroclimatic and Greenland oxygen isotope records. Our results suggest that harvest yields would have increased synchronously over wide areas of central and southern Europe during periods of warm and dry climate. Combined interpretation of palaeoecological and archaeological findings suggests that higher food production led to increased human populations. Positive long-term trends in pollen values of Cerealia and Plantago lanceolata indicate that technical innovations during the Bronze and Iron Age (e.g. metal ploughs, scythes, hay production, fertilising methods) gradually increased agricultural productivity. The successful adoption of yield-increasing advances cannot be explained by climatic determinism alone. Combined with archaeological evidence, our results suggest that despite considerable cycles of spatial and demographic reorganisation (repeated land abandonments and expansions, as well as large-scale migrations and population decreases), human societies were able to shift to lower subsistence levels without dramatic ruptures in material culture. However, our data imply that human societies were not able to compensate rapidly for harvest failures when climate deteriorated. Agriculture in marginal areas was abandoned, and spontaneous reforestations took place on abandoned land south and north of the Alps. Only when the climate changed again to drier and warmer conditions did a new wide-spread phase of forest clearances and field extensions occur, allowing the reoccupation of previously abandoned areas. Spatial distribution of cereal cultivation and growth requirements of Cerealia species suggest that increases in precipitation were far more decisive in driving crop failures over central and southern Europe than temperature decreases.

A Late-glacial and Holocene record of climatic change from a Swiss peat humification profile

Colorimetric measurements of alkaline extracts from two Swiss peat cores have provided a complete 14500-year-long record of peat humification, a proxy of effective precipitation. Peat from the cold Younger Dryas (11050–9550 cal. bc) was well preserved despite low levels of precipitation. A particularly dry period, peaking at c. 7100 cal. bc, is indicated by well-decomposed peat. Peat from c. 6750–4250 cal. bc shows a low degree of decomposition, indicating a wet bog surface despite relatively warm temperatures and therefore indicating high levels of precipitation. A sharp transition to higher levels of decomposition c. 4450–3750 cal. bc indicates a major transition to a drier bog surface. Subsequently, peat humification generally decreases towards the end of the deeper profile (c. cal. ad 1050), indicating a gradual return to wetter conditions. This gradual decrease is punctuated by periods of particularly low humification which appear to be due to shifts to higher levels of effective precipitation from c. 2500 to 1350 cal. bc, c. 1050 to 550 cal. bc, centered around 150 cal. bc, and from c. cal. ad 550 onwards. Anthropogenic influences appear to have affected peat humification at the site at least since the Middle Ages. This study indicates that humification in colder regions/time periods could be more affected by temperature than precipitation and vice versa.

Macrofossils as records of plant responses to rapid Late Glacial climatic changes at three sites in the Swiss Alps

Plant macrofossils from the end of the Younger Dryas were analysed at three sites, Gerzensee (603 m asl), Leysin (1230 m asl), and Zeneggen (1510 m asl). For the first two sites an oxygen-isotope record is also available that was used to develop a time scale (Schwander et al., this volume); dates refer therefore to calibrated years according to the GRIP time scale. Around Gerzensee a pine forest with some tree birches grew during the Younger Dryas. With the onset of the isotopic shift initiating the rapid warming (about 11,535 cal. years before 1950), the pine forest became more productive and denser. At Leysin no trees except some juniper scrub grew during the Younger Dryas. Tree birches, pine, and poplar immigrated from lower altitudes and arrived after the end of the isotopic shift (about 11,487 B.P.), i.e., at the beginning of the Preboreal (at about 11,420 B.P.). Zeneggen is situated somewhat higher than Leysin, but single tree birches and pines survived the Younger Dryas at the site. At the beginning of the Preboreal their productivity and population densities increased. Simultaneously shifts from Nitella to Chara and from silt to gyttja are recorded, all indicating rapidly warming conditions and higher nutrient levels of the lake water (and probably of the soils in the catchment). At Gerzensee the beginning of the Younger Dryas was also analysed: the beginning of the isotopic shift correlates within one sample (about 15 years) to rapid decreases of macrofossils of pines and tree birches.

Isotope climatic record from ice core Dome C

Simple glaciological conditions at Dome C in east Antarctica have made possible a more detailed and accurate interpretation of an ice core to 950 m depth spanning some 32,000 yr than that obtained from earlier ice cores. Dated events in comparable marine core has enabled the reduction of accumulation rate during the last ice age to be estimated. Climatic events recorded in the ice core indicate that the warmest Holocene period in the Southern Hemisphere occurred at an earlier date than in the Northern Hemisphere.

A late Quaternary planktonic foraminifer faunal record of rapid climatic changes of sediment core GIK17938-2

A high-resolution planktonic foraminifer record from a core recovered from the South China Sea (SCS) (Sonne 17938-2: 19°47.2'N, 117° 32.3E; 2840 m; Delta t c. 250-1000 years) shows rapid millennial-scale changes in the western Pacific marginal sea climate during the last 30,000 years. The SCS is the largest western Pacific marginal sea off the southeast Asian continent, the area today dominated by seasonal monsoon changes. Quantitative analyses of planktonic foraminifer faunal abundance data frorn the core indicate large downcore variations in the relative abundances of the dominant taxa since about 30,000 years ago in the isotope stage 3. Further analyses indicate that the abundance of G. inflata, a good indicator species for cold SST (~13°-19°C) and deep MLD (~100-125 m) waters shows abrupt shifts. During stages 2 and 3, the abundance record of G. infiata tends to be punctuated by quasi-periodie short intervals (~2000-3000 yrs) where its abundance reaches 15% or greater, superimposed on generally low (5-10%) background values. This pattern suggests an instability of surface ocean conditions of the SCS during the past 30,000 years. The abrupt abundance changes of G. infiata correlate well with similar climatic changes observed from a GISP2 ice core 8180, and North Atlantic core DSDP 609 N. pachyderma (s.) and lithic grain abundances during 'Heinrich evcnts'. These results suggest that the millennial-scale variability of climate is not peculiar to the Atlantic region. Apparently, the rapid SCS climatic changes during Heinrich events are driven by effective mechanisms, of particularly the effects of shifts in the latitudinal position of the Siberia High Pressure System.

Modelling Pinus pinea forest management to attain natural regeneration under present and future climatic scenarios

Natural regeneration-based silviculture has been increasingly regarded as a reliable option in sustainable forest management. However, successful natural regeneration is not always easy to achieve. Recently, new concerns have arisen because of changing future climate. To date, regeneration models have proved helpful in decision-making concerning natural regeneration. The implementation of such models into optimization routines is a promising approach in providing forest managers with accurate tools for forest planning. In the present study, we present a stochastic multistage regeneration model for Pinus pinea L. managed woodlands in Central Spain, where regeneration has been historically unsuccessful. The model is able to quantify recruitment under different silviculture alternatives and varying climatic scenarios, with further application to optimize management scheduling. The regeneration process in the species showed high between-year variation, with all subprocesses (seed production, dispersal, germination, predation, and seedling survival) having the potential to become bottlenecks. However, model simulations demonstrate that current intensive management is responsible for regeneration failure in the long term. Specifically, stand densities at rotation age are too low to guarantee adequate dispersal, the optimal density of seed-producing trees being around 150 stems·ha−1. In addition, rotation length needs to be extended up to 120 years to benefit from the higher seed production of older trees. Stochastic optimization confirms these results. Regeneration does not appear to worsen under climate change conditions; the species exhibiting resilience worthy of broader consideration in Mediterranean silviculture.

Modelling ozone stomatal flux over wheat under Mediterranean conditions

Correct estimation of leaf-level stomatal conductance (gsto) is central for current ozone (O3) risk assessment of wheat yield loss based on the absorbed O3 phytotoxic dose (POD). The gsto model parameterizations developed in Europe must be checked in the different climatic regions where they are going to be applied in order to reduce the uncertainties associated with the POD approach. This work proposes a new gsto model parameterization for estimating POD of Triticum aestivum and Triticum durum under Mediterranean conditions, based on phenological observations over 25 years and gsto field measurements during 5 growing seasons. Results show that POD in the Mediterranean area might be higher than previously estimated. However, caution must be paid when assessing the risk of yield loss for wheat in this area since field validation of O3 impacts is still limited.

Experimental analysis of energy savings and hygrothermal conditions improvement by means of air curtaines in stores with intensive pedestrian traffic

Current worldwide building legislation requirements aim to the design and construction of technical services that reduce energy consumption and improve indoor hygrothermal conditions. The retail sector in Spain, with a lot of outdated technical systems, demands energy conservation measures in order to reduce the increasingly electrical consumption for cooling. Climatic separation with modern air curtains and advanced hygrothermal control systems enables energy savings and can keep suitable indoor air temperature and humidity of stores with intense pedestrian traffic, especially when located in hot humid climates. As stated in the article, the energy savings in commercial buildings with these systems exceeds 30%

Bio-climatic Design Handbook: designing public space to reach urban sustainability.

The "Bio-climatic Design Handbook: guidelines for the development of planning regulations" is a tool for urban planning and design professionals planning for the construction of public space taking into account bioclimatic and environmental standards. Based on environmental conditions assessment, urban design guidelines are given. These take into account various scales; from the territory to the microclimatic reality. From these general keys for the design of public space the handbook performs recommendations on specific case studies. The application of bioclimatic techniques in urban design promotes comfort in the public space and the respect for the existing environment, while it influences the energy consumption of buildings that conform this open space. The tool was developed in the context of BIOURB project, where Spain and Portugal cooperate writing this bilingual handbook. The case studies are located in this cross-border region.

Improvement of theoretical storm characterization for different climate conditions

The different theoretical models related with storm wave characterization focus on determining the significant wave height of the peak storm, the mean period and, usually assuming a triangle storm shape, their duration. In some cases, the main direction is also considered. Nevertheless, definition of the whole storm history, including the variation of the main random variables during the storm cycle is not taken into consideration. The representativeness of the proposed storm models, analysed in a recent study using an empirical maximum energy flux time dependent function shows that the behaviour of the different storm models is extremely dependent on the climatic characteristics of the project area. Moreover, there are no theoretical models able to adequately reproduce storm history evolution of the sea states characterized by important swell components. To overcome this shortcoming, several theoretical storm shapes are investigated taking into consideration the bases of the three best theoretical storm models, the Equivalent Magnitude Storm (EMS), the Equivalent Number of Waves Storm (ENWS) and the Equivalent Duration Storm (EDS) models. To analyse the representativeness of the new storm shape, the aforementioned maximum energy flux formulation and a wave overtopping discharge structure function are used. With the empirical energy flux formulation, correctness of the different approaches is focussed on the progressive hydraulic stability loss of the main armour layer caused by real and theoretical storms. For the overtopping structure equation, the total volume of discharge is considered. In all cases, the results obtained highlight the greater representativeness of the triangular EMS model for sea waves and the trapezoidal (nonparallel sides) EMS model for waves with a higher degree of wave development. Taking into account the increase in offshore and shallow water wind turbines, maritime transport and deep vertical breakwaters, the maximum wave height of the whole storm history and that corresponding to each sea state belonging to its cycle's evolution is also considered. The procedure considers the information usually available for extreme waves' characterization. Extrapolations of the maximum wave height of the selected storms have also been considered. The 4th order statistics of the sea state belonging to the real and theoretical storm have been estimated to complete the statistical analysis of individual wave height

Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth: Extreme climatic and geochemical global change and its biological consequences

Geological, geophysical, and geochemical data support a theory that Earth experienced several intervals of intense, global glaciation (“snowball Earth” conditions) during Precambrian time. This snowball model predicts that postglacial, greenhouse-induced warming would lead to the deposition of banded iron formations and cap carbonates. Although global glaciation would have drastically curtailed biological productivity, melting of the oceanic ice would also have induced a cyanobacterial bloom, leading to an oxygen spike in the euphotic zone and to the oxidative precipitation of iron and manganese. A Paleoproterozoic snowball Earth at 2.4 Giga-annum before present (Ga) immediately precedes the Kalahari Manganese Field in southern Africa, suggesting that this rapid and massive change in global climate was responsible for its deposition. As large quantities of O2 are needed to precipitate this Mn, photosystem II and oxygen radical protection mechanisms must have evolved before 2.4 Ga. This geochemical event may have triggered a compensatory evolutionary branching in the Fe/Mn superoxide dismutase enzyme, providing a Paleoproterozoic calibration point for studies of molecular evolution.

Tree rings, carbon dioxide, and climatic change

Tree rings have been used in various applications to reconstruct past climates as well as to assess the effects of recent climatic and environmental change on tree growth. In this paper we briefly review two ways that tree rings provide information about climate change and CO2: (i) in determining whether recent warming during the period of instrumental observations is unusual relative to prior centuries to millennia, and thus might be related to increasing greenhouse gases; and (ii) in evaluating whether enhanced radial growth has taken place in recent decades that appears to be unexplained by climate and might instead be due to increasing atmospheric CO2 or other nutrient fertilization. It is found that a number of tree-ring studies from temperature-sensitive settings indicate unusual recent warming, although there are also exceptions at certain sites. The present tree-ring evidence for a possible CO2 fertilization effect under natural environmental conditions appears to be very limited.

Climatic evolution of eastern South America during the last deglaciation: a paleoceanographic approach

Para dar suporte ao atual debate sobre as consequências climáticas da liberação antropogênica de CO2 na atmosfera, o refinamento do conhecimento sobre mudanças climáticas e oceanográficas no passado é necessário. A Circulação de Revolvimento Meridional do Atlântico (CRMA) tem papel fundamental na oceanografia e clima das áreas sob influência do Oceano Atlântico, controlando diretamente a estratificação e distribuição de massas d\'água, a quantidade de calor transportada pelo oceano e os ciclo e armazenamento de compostos químicos, como o CO2 em mar profundo. A formação e circulação da Água Intermediária Antártica (AIA), envolvida no transporte de calor e sal para o giro subtropical do Hemisfério Sul e nas teleconexões climáticas entre altas e baixas latitudes, é componente importante do ramo superior da CRMA. A reconstrução de propriedades de massas de água intermediárias é, portanto, importante para a compreensão dos sistemas de retroalimentação entre oceano-clima. No entanto, informações quanto a evolução da AIA continuam limitadas. Oscilações da CRMA e consequentes mudanças na distribuição de calor tem implicações importantes para o clima Sul Americano, influenciando a disponibilidade de umidade para o Sistema de Monções Sul Americano (SMSA), via temperatura da superfície marinha e posicionamento da Zona de Convergência Intertropical. Neste trabalho nós reconstruímos a assinatura isotópica da AIA durante os estágios isotópicos marinhos 2 e 3 (41-12 cal ka AP) usando isótopos de carbono e oxigênio de foraminíferos bentônicos (gêneros Cibicidoides e Uvigerina) de um testemunho de sedimentos marinhos datados por radiocarbono (1100 m de profundidade e a 20°S na costa do Brasil). Concluímos que propriedades físicas e químicas da AIA mudaram durante os estadiais Heinrich 3 e 4, provavelmente como consequência de enfraquecimento da CRMA durante estes períodos. Também reconstruímos as condições continentais do leste brasileiro entre o último máximo glacial e a deglaciação (23-12 cal ka AP) baseadas em razões Ti/Ca de nosso testemunho de sedimentos marinhos como indicadoras de aporte terrígeno do Rio Doce. A maior parte da chuva que cai na Bacia do Rio Doce está relacionada a atividade do SMAS. Nosso registro de Ti/Ca em conjunto com \'\'delta\' POT.18\'O de espeleotemas da Caverna Lapa Sem Fim, também no leste do Brasil, sugere diminuição marcante da chuva durante o interestadial Bølling-Allerød, provavelmente relacionada a enfraquecimento do SMAS. Ademais comparamos as razões de Ti/Ca com dados de saída da rodada SYNTRACE do modelo climático CCSM3 com forçantes transientes para a última deglaciação. Os registros geoquímicos e a saída do modelo mostram resultados consistentes entre si e sugerem que o leste da América do Sul passou pelo seu período mais seco de toda a última deglaciação durante o interestadial Bølling-Allerød, provavelmente relacionado ao enfraquecimento do SMAS.

Missing Rings in Pinus halepensis – The Missing Link to Relate the Tree-Ring Record to Extreme Climatic Events

Climate predictions for the Mediterranean Basin include increased temperatures, decreased precipitation, and increased frequency of extreme climatic events (ECE). These conditions are associated with decreased tree growth and increased vulnerability to pests and diseases. The anatomy of tree rings responds to these environmental conditions. Quantitatively, the width of a tree ring is largely determined by the rate and duration of cell division by the vascular cambium. In the Mediterranean climate, this division may occur throughout almost the entire year. Alternatively, cell division may cease during relatively cool and dry winters, only to resume in the same calendar year with milder temperatures and increased availability of water. Under particularly adverse conditions, no xylem may be produced in parts of the stem, resulting in a missing ring (MR). A dendrochronological network of Pinus halepensis was used to determine the relationship of MR to ECE. The network consisted of 113 sites, 1,509 trees, 2,593 cores, and 225,428 tree rings throughout the distribution range of the species. A total of 4,150 MR were identified. Binomial logistic regression analysis determined that MR frequency increased with increased cambial age. Spatial analysis indicated that the geographic areas of south-eastern Spain and northern Algeria contained the greatest frequency of MR. Dendroclimatic regression analysis indicated a non-linear relationship of MR to total monthly precipitation and mean temperature. MR are strongly associated with the combination of monthly mean temperature from previous October till current February and total precipitation from previous September till current May. They are likely to occur with total precipitation lower than 50 mm and temperatures higher than 5°C. This conclusion is global and can be applied to every site across the distribution area. Rather than simply being a complication for dendrochronology, MR formation is a fundamental response of trees to adverse environmental conditions. The demonstrated relationship of MR formation to ECE across this dendrochronological network in the Mediterranean basin shows the potential of MR analysis to reconstruct the history of past climatic extremes and to predict future forest dynamics in a changing climate.